Butadiene Styrene Research Articles

Rubber/clay nanocomposites prepared by compounding clay gel with hydrophilically treated styrene-butadiene rubber

In this work, high-performance rubber/clay nanocomposites (NCs) were prepared by hydrophilic modification of styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) in conjunction with gel compounding method. The hydrophilicity of SBR matrix increased by 76 % with the addition of hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTAC), which significantly enhanced the clay-rubber compatibility and processing efficiency. The vulcanization rate of the SBR/clay NC was increased by adding CTAC. The addition of CTAC greatly improved the clay dispersion and the rubber-filler interactions. With increasing the clay loading, the SBR/CTAC/clay NCs showed a gradual increase in stress at a certain strain, elongation at break, tensile strength and Shore A hardness, demonstrating an excellent reinforcing effect of the clay. The tensile strength of the SBR/CTAC/clay NC with 40 phr clay loading reached 14.0 MPa, which was 8.8 times that of the pure SBR and even better than the organoclay filled SBR NC.

Life Cycle Assessment for the Use of Waste Plastics in Asphalt Concrete Mixes

Improper waste disposal poses the risk of contaminating natural water bodies and soil. The low recycling rate of plastics and their fate in landfills are significant global environmental concerns. Efforts to increase the use of recycled plastics worldwide aim to address the hazardous consequences of improper plastic treatment. One potential solution is incorporating plastics as binder or mixture modifiers in asphalt concrete (AC) mixtures, which repurposes waste plastics while reducing environmental impacts related to AC production. This study calculated the environmental impacts of repurposing waste plastics, specifically low-density polyethylene and polystyrene, into modifiers in AC mixes. Wet and dry processes were considered. The environmental impacts of plastic-modified AC mixes were compared with those of styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS)-modified mixes. The life cycle assessment covered the following processes: (1) collection, sorting, and shredding of waste plastics; (2) transportation of waste plastics from landfill to recycling facility and then to the asphalt plant; (3) supply and transportation of virgin materials; (4) production of AC mixtures; (5) transport of material and equipment to site; and (6) onsite operations. The study concluded that waste plastic-modified mixes outperformed SBS-modified mixtures with regard to environmental performance, except for ozone depletion resulting from certain recycling process activities. The high-shear mixing in the wet process had a significant impact. Sensitivity analyses revealed the influence of binder content and material transportation on the overall environmental assessment.

Printability and mechanical properties of solution impregnated continuous jute yarn reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene composites fabricated by fused deposition modeling

AbstractThis work aimed to check the influence of solution impregnated (SIP) jute yarn on printability and mechanical properties of 3D printed continuous jute yarn reinforced biocomposites. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) was employed as the matrix and the biocomposites were fabricated by in‐nozzle melt impregnation fused deposition modeling (FDM). The thermoplasic polyurethane (TPU), polystyrene (PS) and ABS solutions with the concentration of 2 and 10 wt% were prepared for making the SIP jute yarn. The best tensile strength and pull‐out results were obtained for the single strand composed of ABS and jute in which the yarn was impregnated with the solution containing 2 wt% TPU (TPU2%) before processing. The three printing parameters of layer height, print speed and nozzle diameter were changed to compare the process window of the composite specimens fabricated using the solution unimpregnated (SUIP) and SIP jute yarn with TPU2%. The results indicated that the print speed could be higher for the SIP one than that of its counterpart. The tensile and short beam shear tests of the non‐dried (ABS/NDJ) and dried ABS/Jute (ABS/DJ) composites revealed that the influence of drying was more obvious on the tensile properties results than those of on the short beam shear test. In addition, the yield stress, elastic modulus and tensile strength of ABS/DJ were 24, 17 and 12% higher than for ABS/NDJ, respectively. However, the highest tensile properties and short beam shear test results were acquired for the composites fabricated by jute yarn SIP with TPU2%.Highlights Printability of ABS/impregnated continuous jute yarn composites was studied by FDM TPU, PS and ABS of 2 and 10 wt% solutions were used to impregnate the jute yarn Three printing parameters were altered to find the process window for FDM process Best mechanical properties was obtained for ABS/Jute filament impregnated by TPU2% Process window was wider for the impregnated than that for unimpregnated composite

Multi-Criteria Optimization of SBR-Modified Mortar Incorporating Polyethylene Terephthalate Waste

Thermosetting post-consumer plastics like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) raise serious recycling challenges, leading frequently to disposal through incineration or landfilling. This study assesses the feasibility of cementitious materials containing PET additions including the influence of cement content, water-to-cement ratio (w/c), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) polymer additions, and PET volume on the fresh and hardened properties. The mixture proportioning followed the Taguchi methodology, which entailed the utilization of four factors, each possessing three different levels to create an L9 orthogonal matrix. The assessment included diverse performance indicators such as flow, compressive strength, flexural strength, bond strength, water absorption, and resistance to carbonation. Test results revealed that the incorporation of SBR and PET degraded the compressive strength, albeit this can be restored by increasing the cement content and/or reducing w/c. The addition of SBR significantly improved the flexural and bond strengths yet curtailed the water absorption and resistance to carbonation due to increased closed porosity that facilitated the transport properties. The multi-criteria optimization approach (TOPSIS) indicated that superior performance can be achieved using a cement content of 525kg/m3, w/c of 0.55, SBR of 3.5%, and PET incorporation of 4.5%. These parameters were subsequently employed in the development of multivariate regression models, allowing for the prediction of fresh and hardened properties in SBR-PET mortar.

Porcospino Flex: A Bio-Inspired Single-Track Robot with a 3D-Printed, Flexible, Compliant Vertebral Column

Porcospino Flex: A Bio-Inspired Single-Track Robot with a 3D-Printed, Flexible, Compliant Vertebral Column

Additive manufacturing of synthetic rubber ink with high solid content reinforced by networked silica

Abstract Silica is a reinforcing filler commonly used in the production of environmentally friendly tires, as tires reinforced with silica have lower rolling resistance, which translates into reduced energy consumption and improved fuel economy. However, achieving the optimal dispersion of silica within the rubber matrix is crucial for maximizing its reinforcing effects. In this study, a three- dimensionally networked silica (NS) was introduced in various amounts to rubber inks to improve their tensile strength and increase miscibility to enable their use in additive manufacturing. The results show that synthetic rubber ink with a high content of styrene–butadiene rubber (90%) and reinforced by NS possesses adequate viscosity for use in the direct ink write (DIW) process. NS was confirmed to have an impact on the rheological properties and printability of the rubber ink as well as to improve the tensile strength of the printed parts. Different formulations were tested to study and facilitate the vulcanization process and identify the optimal curing conditions as well as the print parameters to use in DIW printing. The successful printing and vulcanization of various printed structures demonstrates the potential for using the developed printable ink in additive manufacturing. This study opens up new possibilities for creating rubber products (such as tire treads) with adequate flexibility and high tensile strength.

Impact of deposition time per layer in large format additive manufacturing with glass fiber reinforced ABS

This paper presents a parametric study of layer adhesion in Large Format Additive Manufacturing (LFAM) applications using glass fiber (GF) reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The study focuses on the deposition time per layer (tL) and includes an innovative approach to monitor temperature variation throughout the printing process using an infrared camera. The paper provides a detailed account of the sample fabrication process and experimental tensile tests. Specifically, this study shows how lower times per layer yield better mechanical properties as material is deposited over hotter layers, resulting in smaller thermal gradients, hence better layer adhesion and reduced warpage.

Predicting the glass transition temperature and solubility parameter between rubber/silica and rubber/resins via all‐atom molecular dynamics simulation

AbstractResin is a widely used additive in rubber composites, which not only improves the processing properties of the composites but also enhances their mechanical properties, rolling resistance and wear resistance. However, there are specific differences in compatibility among resin, rubber and silica, which directly affect the performance of the composite materials. In this work, we first computed the glass transition temperature () of five resins in styrene−butadiene rubber (SBR) composites to prove the reliability of the computational method. Then, we explored the effects of different components and resin types on of SBR and found that the addition of silica can increase due to weak attractive interactions between silica and rubber molecular chains, which restrict the movement of the molecular chains. Furthermore, using solubility parameters, we analyzed the compatibility of rubber and five different resins and found that all five resins had good compatibility with rubber, especially C5/C9 copolymerized petroleum resin and hydrogenated resin. Finally, we revealed that there is a mutually attractive force between resin and silica. In summary, understanding the interactions among resins, silica and rubber is crucial for optimizing the performance of composite materials. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Performance evaluation of SBS-modified asphalt mixtures incorporating waste tire rubber and HDPE

Based on the functional complementarity of waste tire rubber (WTR) and waste high-density polyethylene (HDPE) in asphalt, this study presents a novel approach that simultaneously utilizes WTR and HDPE for modification and substitution of styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified asphalt. Through experiments on three major indicators, the dosage ratios of the three polymers are scientifically designed using the response surface methodology, and four different ratios of SBS-HDPE-WTR are selected to prepare modified asphalt mixtures. Performance evaluations are conducted on various pavement properties, including high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack resistance, water stability, fatigue resistance, and aging resistance, by comparing them to the reference 4% SBS-modified asphalt mixture. The results demonstrate that the addition of WTR significantly improves the elastic properties and fatigue resistance of the mixture, while the addition of HDPE enhances its high-temperature stability and aging resistance. The SBS-HDPE-WTR asphalt mixtures, designed with appropriate ratios, exhibit superior high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack resistance, and fatigue resistance. Therefore, the use of these waste materials in asphalt mixtures offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly solution for the construction industry.

Impact of Nonrecyclable Plastics on Asphalt Binders and Mixtures

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polystyrene (PS) were evaluated for incorporation as binder additives to enhance the potential performance of asphalt concrete (AC) mixtures, as well as addressing global rising concerns over nonrecyclable plastics accumulation. Incorporation of LDPE and PS in asphalt binder resulted in an increase in its complex moduli over a range of temperatures and frequencies, as determined using frequency sweep (FS) and linear amplitude sweep (LAS) tests. AC performance tests were conducted, including the Hamburg wheel-tracking test (HWTT) to assess potential rutting, the Illinois flexibility index test (I-FIT) to determine cracking potential, the indirect tensile strength test (ITS) to assess moisture susceptibility, and the dynamic modulus for structural capacity. Two control AC mixes were designed, utilizing aggregates from different sources. For each AC mix, the aggregate blend and binder content were kept constant, with only the binder type changed. LDPE and PS were added through a wet process in one mix. Dry and wet processes were used in the other mix. Waste plastics–modified AC mixes, in both wet and dry processes, exhibited reduced rutting potential. However, the cracking potential and moisture damage susceptibility varied, depending on the modified AC mix. The addition of waste plastics had no impact on AC dynamic modulus. The results for waste plastics–modified AC mixes were compared with those for styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS)–modified AC mixes. While waste plastics modification provided improvement over the control mixes, the performance fell short of that of the double-pump SBS-modified mix.

Dosimetric characteristics of 3D-printed and epoxy-based materials for particle therapy phantoms

Objective3D printing has seen use in many fields of imaging and radiation oncology, but applications in (anthropomorphic) phantoms, especially for particle therapy, are still lacking. The aim of this work was to characterize various available 3D printing methods and epoxy-based materials with the specific goal of identifying suitable tissue surrogates for dosimetry applications in particle therapy.Methods3D-printed and epoxy-based mixtures of varying ratios combining epoxy resin, bone meal, and polyethylene powder were scanned in a single-energy computed tomography (CT), a dual-energy CT, and a µCT scanner. Their CT-predicted attenuation was compared to measurements in a 148.2 MeV proton and 284.7 MeV/u carbon ion beam. The sample homogeneity was evaluated in the respective CT images and in the carbon beam, additionally via widening of the Bragg peak. To assess long-term stability attenuation, size and weight measurements were repeated after 6–12 months.ResultsFour 3D-printed materials, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene polylactic acid, fused deposition modeling printed nylon, and selective laser sintering printed nylon, and various ratios of epoxy-based mixtures were found to be suitable tissue surrogates. The materials’ predicted stopping power ratio matched the measured stopping power ratio within 3% for all investigated CT machines and protocols, except for µCT scans employing cone beam CT technology. The heterogeneity of the suitable surrogate samples was adequate, with a maximum Bragg peak width increase of 11.5 ± 2.5%. The repeat measurements showed no signs of degradation after 6–12 months.ConclusionWe identified surrogates for soft tissue and low- to medium-density bone among the investigated materials. This allows low-cost, adaptable phantoms to be built for quality assurance and end-to-end tests for particle therapy.

Review and Assessment of Existing and Future Techniques for Traceability with Particular Focus on Applicability to ABS Plastics

It is generally recognized that the use of physical and digital information-based solutions for tracking plastic materials along a value chain can favour the transition to a circular economy and help to overcome obstacles. In the near future, traceability and information exchange between all actors in the value chain of the plastics industry will be crucial to establishing more effective recycling systems. Recycling plastics is a complex process that is particularly complicated in the case of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic because of its versatility and use in many applications. This literature study is part of a larger EU-funded project with the acronym ABSolEU (Paving the way for an ABS recycling revolution in the EU). One of its goals is to propose a suitable traceability system for ABS products through physical marking with a digital connection to a suitable data-management system to facilitate the circular use of ABS. The aim of this paper is therefore to review and assess the current and future techniques for traceability with a particular focus on their use for ABS plastics as a basis for this proposal. The scientific literature and initiatives are discussed within three technological areas, viz., labelling and traceability systems currently in use, digital data sharing systems and physical marking. The first section includes some examples of systems used commonly today. For data sharing, three digital technologies are discussed, viz., Digital Product Passports, blockchain solutions and certification systems, which identify a product through information that is attached to it and store, share and analyse data throughout the product’s life cycle. Finally, several different methods for physical marking are described and evaluated, including different labels on a product’s surface and the addition of a specific material to a polymer matrix that can be identified at any point in time with the use of a special light source or device. The conclusion from this study is that the most promising data management technology for the near future is blockchain technology, which could be shared by all ABS products. Regarding physical marking, producers must evaluate different options for individual products, using the most appropriate and economical technology for each specific product. It is also important to evaluate what information should be attached to a specific product to meet the needs of all actors in the value chain.

Reinforcing Performance of Silane-Modified Recycled Nanosilica within Sustainable, Non-black-filled Styrene–Butadiene Rubber Nanocomposites

Reinforcing Performance of Silane-Modified Recycled Nanosilica within Sustainable, Non-black-filled Styrene–Butadiene Rubber Nanocomposites

Ecological and Technological Aspects of Liquid-phase Filling of Styrene-butadiene Rubber with Black Carbon in an Ultrasonic Field

It has been found that black carbon exhibits increased sorption activity in relation to the emulsifying agents of the latex system under ultrasonic impact, which contributes to destabilization of the latex and the release of the elastomeric composition without the use of coagulating agents. It was revealed that as a result of the black carbon sorption of non-biodegradable leukanol, emulsifying substances in the form of resin soaps and fatty acids, the overall pollution of wastewater is reduced, and treatment efficiency of up to 98% is achieved in terms of COD. It has been shown that the liquid-phase filling of SKS-30ARK rubber at the latex stage with high-structural black carbon of grade P245 at a ratio, wt. part — rubber: black carbon = 100 : 100 allows to reduce the content of non-biodegradable leukanol down to 0.1 mg/dm3 and increase the biooxidability index of wastewater to 83%.

Polymer-modified mortar flexibility of the masonry-concrete structure interface

High crack occurrences at the masonry-infilled wall partition-reinforced concrete structure interface is a problem that challenges the Brazilian construction process. Improving the mortar’s flexibility is suggested as a potential solution, but it's still not widely known. This paper evaluates industrialized mortar properties modified with four polymers and one plasticizer additive. The research methodology consisted of an experimental investigation related to the mortar properties using styrene-acrylic copolymer (SAE), polyvinyl acetate copolymer (PVAc), styrene-butadiene copolymer (SBR), white glue PVA (polyvinyl acetate), and a sulfated ethoxylated fatty alcohol salt plasticizer additive. The polymers were used in addition to (4%, 5% and 8%) and instead of (4% and 5%) the amount of water established by the manufacturer of the reference mortar, while the amount of additive used was 0.08%. The investigation characterization considered the fresh and hardened conditions, especially, the flexibility evaluation, and tests of elasticity modulus and transverse deformation were carried out, in addition to scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that there was an elasticity modulus reduction of all mixtures compared with the reference mortar without modification. The transverse deformation results range from a minimum of 0.23 mm (SBR) to a maximum of 0.94 mm (SAE). Regarding SEM, the tests with polymers have smoother and less porous surfaces. The mortar flexibility performance with different additive contents is the main contribution of this research.

Dimensional accuracy of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and polylactic acid samples printed in vacuum-assisted material extrusion system

This paper discusses the impact of integrating a vacuum system into a material extrusion 3D printing process for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) materials. The study aimed to investigate the effect of a vacuum system on the dimensional accuracy of the printed samples. Upon completion of the printing process, the samples’ dimensions were carefully assessed using a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). The geometrical dimensions measured are the diameter, corner radius, fillet, thickness, width, length and angle. Based on the result obtained, the material has yet to reach 100% of the desired geometry, which was identified due to the shrinkage of the material after the printing process. The results show that the vacuum system improved material flow and reduced dimensional deviations by reducing air molecules and minimizing convection. The results indicated a significant enhancement in dimensional accuracy for both ABS and PLA samples when using the vacuum system. ABS samples showed a 4% increase in accuracy, while PLA samples exhibited a 2% improvement compared to samples printed without vacuum assistance. These improvements were achieved by optimizing process parameters such as layer height (0.15 mm), infill percentage (10%), printing speed (45 mm s−1), and bed temperature (60 °C). These parameters were selected to ensure finer details, improved precision, structural support, stability, better adhesion, and reduced warping.

Study on the properties and microstructure of polymer modified waste printed circuit board cement-based materials

Waste printed circuit boards (WPCB) are solid waste, and the current disposal of WPCB in landfills has raised environmental concern. Existing studies used ground WPCB as a replacement of fine aggregate in cement-based materials, but the performances of those materials were notably decreased. This paper aims to improve the performance of WPCB-bearing cementitious materials using styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) latex and chloroprene rubber (CR) latex. For this purpose, cement-based materials with ground WPCB as fine aggregates were prepared, and the effects of SBR latex and CR latex on the mechanical properties of WPCB-bearing samples with varying dosages were studied. The influence mechanism was studied using SEM, hydration heat, XRD, and FTIR tests. The results showed that the incorporation of ground WPCB tends to significantly reduce the compressive strength of cement-based materials, while the addition of SBR and CR latex can prevent the strength loss. For instance, with the optimal dosage of 5 % for SBR latex or 7.5 % for CR, the 28-d compressive strength of the latex-modified sample was 42.6 MPa and 45.3 MPa, which was 26.78 % and 34.82 % higher than that of the unmodified samples. Through microstructure analysis, it was found that the incorporation of WPCB had a negative impact on the densification of cement-based materials. SBR latex and CR latex promoted the hydration reaction and formed continuous film products inside the structure, which improved the bonding performance of WPCB cement-based materials.

Effect of nano-ZnO on the microstructure and application properties of styrene-butadiene-styrene modified asphalt

In order to further improve the road performance of SBS (styrene-butadiene-styrene) modified asphalt, nano-ZnO (zinc oxide nanoparticles)/SBS/asphalt composites with different nano-ZnO contents were prepared by solution casting method. Temperature scanning and frequency scanning were used to study the rheological properties of the modified bitumen, and the effect of nano-ZnO on the thermal stability of modified asphalt was analyzed by DSC (differential scanning calorimeter). By analyzing the microstructure, it was found that with the addition of nano-ZnO, the SBS gradually transformed from round particles to three-dimensional mesh structure, and the special effect of nanoparticles improved the dispersion of SBS in asphalt, and the formation of the three-dimensional mesh structure was the key to improve the performance of the asphalt application. All the results show that the modified asphalt has the best performance when the doping of nano-ZnO is 2 wt%. Meanwhile, the prepared solution can be electrostatically spun to obtain oriented asphalt fibers with a diameter of 20 µm, which may have applications in areas such as waterproof fabrics or asphalt-based carbon fibers.

Modelling Fatigue Crack Growth in High-Density Polyethylene and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Polymers.

Prior studies into fatigue crack growth (FCG) in fibre-reinforced polymer composites have shown that the two methodologies of Simple-Scaling and the Hartman-Schijve crack growth equation, which is based on relating the FCG rate to the Schwalbe crack driving force, Δκ, were able to account for differences observed in the measured delamination growth curves. The present paper reveals that these two approaches are also able to account for differences seen in plots of the rate of crack growth, da/dt, versus the range of the imposed stress intensity factor, ΔK, associated with fatigue tests on different grades of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) polymers, before and after electron-beam irradiation, and for tests conducted at different R ratios. Also, these studies are successfully extended to consider FCG in an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) polymer that is processed using both conventional injection moulding and additive-manufactured (AM) 3D printing.

Evaluation of particle and volatile organic compound emissions during the use of 3D pens

This study investigated particle and volatile organic compound (VOC) emission rates (ER) from 3D pens, which are increasingly popular in children's toys. Nine filaments and two 3D pens were evaluated using a flow tunnel, a scanning mobility particle sizer, a proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer for particles, and a thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometer for VOCs. Results showed that the ERs varied with the pen type, filament, and brand. The particle ER was highest for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), followed by polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL). Notably, ERs of 83 % and 33 % of ABS and PLA filaments exceeded the maximum allowable particle ER (MAER; 5 × 109 particles/min) for 3D printers but were lower than the VOC MAER (173 μg/min in the office). Different filaments emitted diverse VOCs; ABS emitted styrene and benzene, PLA emitted lactide, and PCL emitted phenol. While particle ERs from 3D pens were comparable to those from printers, the total VOC ERs from 3D pens were slightly lower. Caution is warranted when using 3D pens because of potential health risks, especially their prolonged use, proximity to the breathing zone, and usage by children. This study highlights the need for considering particles and VOCs when assessing the safety of 3D pens, emphasizing awareness of potential hazards, particularly in child-oriented settings.