Urban Studies Research Articles

The effect of BCG revaccination on the response to unrelated vaccines in urban Ugandan adolescents (POPVAC C): an open-label, randomised controlled trial

Immune responses induced by several important vaccines differ between populations, with reduced responses in low-income and rural settings compared with high-income and urban settings. BCG immunisation boosts immune responses to some unrelated vaccines in high-income populations. We aimed to test the hypothesis that BCG revaccination can enhance responses to unrelated vaccines in Ugandan schoolchildren. We conducted an open-label, randomised controlled trial to compare the effects of BCG revaccination versus no BCG revaccination on the immunogenicity of subsequent unrelated vaccines among adolescents aged 13-17 years who are participants in an urban Ugandan birth cohort study, in which BCG vaccination was documented at birth. Participants were excluded if they had received any of the trial vaccines or related agents when aged 5 years or older. Computer-generated 1:1 randomisation was implemented in REDCap. Participants were excluded if they were concurrently enrolled in other trials; had a clinically significant history of immunodeficiency, or serious psychiatric conditions or moderate to severe acute illnesses; were taking immunosuppressive medications; had allergies to vaccine components, a predisposition towards developing keloid scarring; positive HIV tests or pregnancy tests; were female participants who were lactating; or if they planned to use investigational drugs, vaccines, blood products, or any combination thereof. Trial participants assigned to the BCG revaccination group received the live parenteral BCG-Russia vaccine (Serum Institute of India, Pune, India; 0·1 mL intradermally, right upper arm) at week 0. All participants received yellow fever vaccine (YF-17D; Sanofi Pasteur, Lyon, France; 0·5 mL intramuscularly, left upper arm), live oral typhoid vaccine (Ty21a; PaxVax, London, UK; one capsule per day taken for three alternate days), and quadrivalent virus-like particle human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine (Merck, Rahway, NJ, USA; 0·5 mL intramuscularly, left upper arm) at week 4; and toxoid vaccines (tetanus-diphtheria; Serum Institute of India; 0·5 mL intramuscularly, left upper arm) and an HPV booster at week 28. An additional HPV vaccination at week 8 was provided to female participants older than 14 years who had not previously been vaccinated. The primary outcomes were yellow fever neutralising antibody titres at 4 weeks post-YF-17D vaccination, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (henceforth S Typhi) O-lipopolysaccharide (O:LPS)-specific IgG concentration at 4 weeks post-Ty21a vaccination, and HPV-16 and HPV-18 L1 protein-specific IgG concentration at 4 weeks post-HPV vaccination. Primary outcome assays were conducted at week 8, and at week 52 for tetanus-diphtheria. We conducted an intention-to-treat analysis comparing log-transformed outcomes between trial groups, with results back-transformed to geometric mean ratios (GMRs). The safety population comprised all randomly allocated participants. The trial was registered at the ISRCTN Registry (ISRCTN10482904) and is complete. Between Aug 31 and Oct 12, 2020, we screened 376 potential participants for eligibility. We enrolled and randomly allocated 300 participants to the two groups (151 [50%] to the BCG group and 149 [50%] to the no BCG group). 178 (59%) of 300 participants were male and 122 (41%) were female. 142 (91%) of 151 participants in the BCG group and 139 (93%) of 149 in the no BCG group completed follow-up. There was no effect of BCG revaccination, compared with no BCG revaccination, on the response observed for any vaccine. Yellow fever plaque reduction neutralising reference tests (PRNT50) titres (the reciprocal of the last plasma dilution that reduced by 50%) had a GMR of 0·95 (95% CI 0·75-1·19; p=0·62) and PRNT90 (reciprocal of the last plasma dilution that reduced by 90%) had a GMR of 0·94 (0·74-1·19; p=0·60); IgG to S Typhi O:LPS was 0·99 (0·80-1·23; p=0·94); IgG to HPV-16 was 0·97 (0·69-1·35; p=0·85) and to HPV-18 was 1·03 (0·76-1·40; p=0·83); and toxoid-specific IgG for tetanus was 1·13 (0·87-1·47; p=0·36) and was 1·00 (0·87-1·16; p=0·97) for diphtheria. There were no serious adverse events in either group. We found no evidence that BCG revaccination is an effective strategy to improve immunogenicity of other vaccines in this low-income, urban setting. UK Medical Research Council. For the Luganda translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Industrial Heritage and Cultural Clusters: More Than a Temporary Affair?

The transformation of industrial heritage buildings into cultural clusters has emerged as a prominent topic of academic research in urban planning, urban studies, heritage conservation, and architecture. Cultural clusters, defined as geographically concentrated cultural activities and organisations, have become a key instrument in urban regeneration, fostering economic growth and cultural development. Despite the benefits that cultural clusters offer in terms of fostering cultural activity, they often prove to be short-lived due to various external factors, including urban regeneration pressures, shifts in policy, and changes in zoning regulations. This thematic issue presents seven case studies that offer insights into the current state of cultural clusters, their transient nature, and the conditions necessary to guarantee their long-term sustainability in industrial heritage sites. The research is particularly relevant in light of the mounting pressure on urban land, where industrial heritage sites are frequently repurposed for residential, commercial, or industrial purposes.

A Calculating Method for the Height of Multi-Type Buildings Based on 3D Point Cloud

Building height is a critical variable in urban studies, and the automated acquisition of the precise building height is essential for intelligent construction, safety, and the sustainable development of cities. The building height is often approximated by the building’s highest point. However, the calculation method of the building height of the various roof types differs according to building codes, making it challenging to accurately calculate the height of buildings with complex roof structures or multiple upper appendages. Consequently, this paper utilizes point clouds to propose an automated method for calculating building heights conforming to design codes. The model considers roof types and allows for fast, automated, and highly accurate building height estimation. First, roofs are extracted from the point cloud by combining normal vector density clustering with a region-growing algorithm. Second, combined with variational Bayes, a Gaussian mixture model is employed to segment the roof surfaces. Finally, roofs are classified based on slope characteristics, achieving the automatic acquisition of building heights for various roof types over large areas. Experiments were conducted on Vaihingen and STPLS3D datasets. In the Vaihingen area, the maximum error, root-mean-square-error (RMSE), and mean absolute error (MAE) of the measured heights are 1.92 cm, 1.18 cm, and 1.13 cm, respectively. In the STPLS3D area, these values are 1.79 cm, 0.82 cm, and 0.68 cm, respectively. The results demonstrate that the proposed method is reliable and effective, which offers valuable data for the development, construction, and planning of three-dimensional (3D) cities.

Amenities and housing market dynamics: Implications for population change, urban attractiveness, innovation, and productivity

This introductory essay aims to provide a comprehensive overview of a collection of 17 articles, previously published in the Urban Studies journal, now consolidated as a ‘virtual special issue’. The articles contribute to numerous strands of what has, over the decades, become an extremely voluminous literature concerning the interplay between population change and productivity within cities. It is important to acknowledge that the volume of this literature makes it effectively impossible to summarise effectively in a single essay. This article instead presents a contextual overview, a glimpse into the various thematic strands arising from the literature, and an introduction to each of the selected virtual special issue articles themselves. It briefly highlights the unique contributions of these articles to the overarching objective of the Urban Studies journal, which is to advance our understanding of the urban condition. Yet, it is also worth noting that the literature does not neatly segregate into distinct strands. Indeed, several contributing authors within the virtual special issue rightly emphasise the significant interdependencies between population change, migration patterns, specialisation, firm location, urban and natural amenities, agglomeration economies, and productivity. This essay attempts to progress logically from one strand to another, with a specific focus on labour and housing markets, as well as transportation costs or systems, as mediators of these complex relationships. Finally, the essay concludes by bringing attention to several strands of future inquiry that might prove fruitful and would be of interest to the readership of this journal.

When the ‘inclusive turn’ fuels the entrepreneurial city: Critical perspectives from Singapore

The rise of the notion of ‘inclusion’ in urban planning, seen in phrases like inclusive city, calls for a critical analysis of its evolving meaning and its spatial, social and political implications. Paradoxically, the meaning of urban inclusion has narrowed such that it now primarily refers to accessibility for people with disabilities. At the intersection of urban studies and critical disability studies, our article investigates the conceptions, criteria and modes of production underlying the implementation of urban inclusion in Singapore's ‘Enabling Village’, a purportedly inclusive space opened in 2015. We use a mixed‐methods approach, analysing official narratives and conducting site visits to understand the site as both an appropriated and a branded space. We show that, in Singapore, the inclusion agenda interacts with the city‐state's distinctive approach to planning and governance, where social issues are ‘engineered’ and give rise to replicable operational models. Our hypothesis is that implementing the inclusive city through the production and promotion of ‘inclusive’ urban projects such as the Enabling Village fuels the expansion of Singapore as a state‐led ‘entrepreneurial city’ (Harvey, Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography 1989; 71(1):3–17). In particular, operationalising ‘urban inclusion’ in this way allows for the reinvention of Singapore as a global urban model.

Literary form and historicised relationality: theorising the city as text in Teju Cole’s novels

ABSTRACT This essay explores the representation and theorisation of the city in Teju Cole’s novels – Every Day Is for the Thief (2007), Open City (2011), and Tremor (2023). It argues that Cole’s writing articulates a new grammar of city-ness premised on historicised relationality and comparative thinking, thus challenging paradigms of urban representation that universalise the Western city. In particular, I propose that Cole’s novels offer a rewriting of Lagos and New York as specifically textual constructions, in which histories of modernity and colonisation get crystallised into their social geographies and cultural infrastructures. By close reading these texts and by drawing from the insights of postcolonial and literary urban studies, I analyse the formal devices – from variations in perspective to restricted focalisation – that Cole employs to textualise the city and its political histories. Through form, Cole’s novels raise crucial questions, both ethical and narrative, about representability, language, and historical violence in urban settings.

Las Polémicas de la Relación Espacio Social y su Influencia en la Forma Urbana en Ciudades Contemporáneas

This essay explores the polemics of the concept “social spatial.” Four main axes of thought can be distinguished: social space as the material environment of social groups; social space as a relational establishment of positions; social space as a dialectical approach to the society-space relationship; and, finally, the threads of constructivism that question the opposition of society and space from a post-structural perspective. This essay attempts to situate these four perspectives within the literature that pays attention to social theory, social geography, urban studies and their implications for the spatial professions of urban planning, urban design, architecture and civil engineering. These four perspectives of social space are complementary from a theoretical point of view. Its application in social research often occurs simultaneously within and among different disciplines, depending largely on the object of analysis, and how geography is defined. I argue that these four theoretical perspectives define geography differently as either functional space, central places, territoriality, or lived places. Moreover, these perspectives and their respective definitions of geography influence practice and professional policy that affect urban form. This essay pays attention to the link between knowledge and practice that have created contemporary socio-spatial environments.

The role of uric acid in the risk of hypertension developed from prehypertension: a five-year Chinese urban cohort study

BackgroundUric acid as a prominent causal factor in the pathogenesis of hypertension is well recognized. Nevertheless, the influence of uric acid on the transition from prehypertension to hypertension within the Chinese population remains understudied.MethodsA cohort of 1,516 prehypertensive individuals, aged 35 to 84 years, underwent recruitment following a comprehensive health assessment in 2017 and subsequent re-evaluation in 2022. Baseline characteristics and relevant clinical data were collected. The analytical approach encompassed multiple logistic regression and propensity score matching.ResultsOver 5 years, the cumulative incidence of hypertension amounted to 35.1%, with 33.9% in males and 37.3% in females, respectively. Notably, prehypertensive subjects concomitant with hyperuricemia exhibited a higher cumulative incidence of hypertension in comparison to the non-hyperuricemic counterparts (40.7% vs. 34.0%, p = 0.041). Multiple logistic regression unveiled a significant association between hyperuricemia and heightened hypertension risk (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.05–1.98; p = 0.022). Nonetheless, this association did not reach statistical significance when examining female subjects (adjusted OR = 1.10; 95% CI, 0.58–2.09; p = 0.781) or participants aged ≥ 60 years (adjusted OR = 1.07; 95% CI, 0.61–1.88; p = 0.814). Further validation through propensity score matching affirmed that subjects afflicted by hyperuricemia experienced a substantially elevated risk of transitioning from prehypertension to hypertension over the course of five years compared with the non-hyperuricemic counterparts (41.3% vs. 32.3%, p = 0.045), after adjusting for 12 covariates including age and gender. Hyperuricemia emerged as an independent risk factor predisposing individuals to the development of hypertension from a prehypertensive state.ConclusionThis observation prompted the formulation of a hypothesis suggesting that ameliorating elevated uric acid levels may potentially mitigate the progression from prehypertension to hypertension.

Blinders of extreme heat adaptation: uneven urban development and the reproduction of vulnerabilities

ABSTRACT Despite its deadly nature, extreme heat has received fragmented and scattered responses in cities, often overlooking the crucial social and equity components. Dominant adaptation approaches have paid little attention to chronic socio-economic vulnerabilities to heat stress, resulting in a lack of strategic planning to address them. Building upon critical urban studies and adaptation scholarship, this article examines how the dynamics of urban climate adaptation in the Global North have sidestepped the root causes of heat vulnerability and their (re)production in past, present and future practices of uneven urban development and planning under austerity. We investigate this empirically in attending to the framing of adaptation, the instruments used and the biases they introduce in Montreal (Canada), as well the perception from planners and community groups regarding their agency in responding to extreme heat. We contribute to the literature in analysing how the urban governance of adaptation in urban planning tends to silence the social production of vulnerabilities by three intersecting processes: the biases of instruments used, the unacknowledged legacies of uneven urban development, and the lacking recognition and support for community organisations caring practices.

Nighttime Street View Imagery: A new perspective for sensing urban lighting landscape

Urban lighting reflects nocturnal activities and it is traditionally observed using Nighttime Lights (NTL) satellite imagery. Few studies systematically measure the nightscape from a human perspective. This study brings a new paradigm — urban lighting sensing via Nighttime Street View Imagery (SVI). The paradigm draws on the accomplishments of (daytime) SVI and gives attention to its ignored nighttime counterpart. We put forward this idea by manually collecting 2,831 nighttime SVIs across various urban functional areas in Singapore. We investigated their values by developing a use case for clustering nighttime lighting patterns. To mitigate the scarcity of nighttime SVI, deep learning regression models were trained to predict nighttime brightness based on corresponding daytime SVIs obtained from widely available sources. The results were compared with brightness data derived from satellite imagery, to affirm the novelty and uniqueness of nighttime SVI. As a result, there are 7 lighting patterns within the collected nighttime SVI, distinct in lighted spot features and total brightness. The identified patterns effectively characterize different urban function scenarios. The best trained brightness prediction model performs well in revealing the city-scale lighting landscape. The SVI-predicted brightness shows a distribution similar to the brightness from satellite imagery and complements it in urban areas with complex vertical lighting structures. This study demonstrates the potential of nighttime SVI as a valuable data source for mapping urban lighting and activities, offering advantages over satellite data. The proposed paradigm contributes significantly to cross-modal information mining in urban studies and has potential applications in scenarios such as light pollution mitigation and crime prevention.

Thermal preference and pleasantness of a students’ population in a coastal urban area during summer

In thermal comfort research, two main domains are identified: objective and subjective. This study focusses on the latter, examining various aspects of preference, sensation, and pleasantness. It also clearly distinguishes each concept and sets the groundwork for their standardised use in urban planning and urban climate studies. Additionally, this study emphasises the often-overlooked geographical perspective, aiming to address previous gaps in this research area. Environmental conditions were found to be the main determinants influencing pedestrians' thermal sensation, preference, and pleasure. Key factors include air temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed, which exhibit strong correlations with pleasure responses. Additionally, urban density, clothing type and colour, shading, sex, and weather type significantly impact thermal sensation and reported pleasantness. It was observed that people who overdressed for the season, wore dark or warmer clothes, experienced air temperature and solar radiation more intensely. Similarly, those in high-density urban areas, without shade, or when weak continental wind conditions were observed, reported stronger thermal sensations. Women generally sensed air temperature and solar radiation as more intense compared to men. These factors influence thermal pleasantness, varying in importance, spatial distribution, and statistical relationship. Higher wind speeds, particularly from an Atlantic direction, were found to enhance thermal pleasantness by balancing conditions and reducing thermal sensation votes for air temperature and solar radiation. Green areas also increased thermal pleasantness by lowering air temperature and solar radiation sensations and promoting a sense of happiness among pedestrians.

Compensation landscapes

In this contribution, I explore compensation landscapes as a concept through which we can question the nature of ecological urbanism today, as an alliance of environmental degradation, urban development and landscape design. In urbanism and landscape studies, there is currently almost no debate on the spatial dynamics created by the compensation of environmental harm. This is remarkable, as green urban landscapes are increasingly developed through biodiversity offsetting, i.e. the process where open space assets that have been destroyed through urban development are replaced elsewhere. While the literature on these topics is booming in critical geography and political ecology, I explore three scopes in which biodiversity offsetting can be studied as part of urbanism and landscape studies. Through the spatialization of compensation, the linking of offsetting to planning research, and by giving attention to landscape design, this paper frames compensation as a socio-spatial urbanisation project.

Self-organizing orders, urban studies and planning theory

Self-organizing orders, urban studies and planning theory

Plant diversity value of informal green spaces in tropical coastal urban areas: An empirical study of species, functional, and phylogenetic diversity

Informal green spaces (IGS) are a hot topic in urban biodiversity studies, but overlooked in urban biodiversity conservation or management, especially in tropical coastal cities, where comprehensive assessments remain scarce. Most existing research has been limited to species diversity (α-diversity), with few studies addressing functional and phylogenetic diversity as aspects of α-diversity, and species turnover (β-diversity) across multiple IGS types. This study bridges these gap by conducting a detailed vegetation survey in Jiangdong New Area of Haikou City, establishing 213 sites. Within these sites, we examined 343 IGS sample plots and 274 formal green spaces (FGS) sample plots. We assessed species, functional, and phylogenetic diversity using α and β diversity metrics and analyzed the influence of environmental factors with generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs). The results recorded 235 species of herbaceous plants from 179 genera and 54 families in IGS, including 215 spontaneous species, compared to 154 spontaneous species in FGS. Our findings indicate that IGS exhibited higher species richness and functional richness compared to FGS, though differences in phylogenetic diversity were less pronounced. Key environmental factors like relative humidity, trampling intensity, and proximity to urban areas significantly influenced species richness and abundance in IGS. These findings underscore the critical role of IGS in enhancing biodiversity and resilience in tropical coastal cities, emphasizing the need to integrate IGS into urban planning strategies for sustainable urban ecosystems.

Cinematic urbanism: Understanding cities through film

This reflective paper explores the unique relationship between cinema and urbanism, illustrating how films offer a rich and multifaceted lens for understanding urban environments. Reflecting on a range of films, particularly Blade Runner and The Truman Show, the paper demonstrates how cinema captures and critiques cultural and social norms, represents urban spaces, and influences perceptions of architecture and urban design, especially in pedagogical contexts within urbanism university programs. These two movies have also been chosen as they represent paradigmatic cases on which analysis of new and post-urbanism has been done in urbanism studios. The paper emphasizes the pivotal role of films in shaping and reflecting our understanding of urban environments. The main crux and objective of the paper is the exploration and highlights of the educational value of films in urban studies, particularly within two master’s programs, offering insights into cities’ spatial dimensions and reflections on urban forms’ social life. The study integrates key scholarly perspectives and new cinematic urbanism pedagogics (a seven-step methodology developed in the studios). By weaving together these perspectives, this essay underscores the multifaceted relationship between cinema and urbanism, demonstrating how films can serve as powerful tools for understanding and shaping urban environments and the complex social life of urban forms. The paper ends with general conclusions and recommendations for policy and practice.

Evaluating MPAS-A Performance for Mesoscale Simulation in a Tropical Region: A Case Study of Extreme Heat in Jakarta, Indonesia

The Model for Prediction Across Scales–Atmosphere (MPAS-A) has been widely used for larger scale simulations, but its performance in mesoscale, particularly in tropical regions, is less evaluated. This study aimed to assess MPAS-A in simulating extreme surface air temperature in Jakarta during the hot spells of October 2023 with eight different simulation setups. Several validation metrics were applied to near-surface meteorological variables, land surface temperature (LST), and vertical atmospheric profile. From the eight simulations, MPAS-A captured diurnal patterns of the near-surface variables well, except for wind direction. The model also performed well in LST simulations. Moreover, the biases in the vertical profiles varied with height and were sensitive to the initial/boundary conditions used. Simulations with modified terrestrial datasets showed higher LST and air temperatures over the sprawling urban areas. MPAS-A successfully simulated the extreme event, showing higher air temperatures in southern Jakarta (over 36 °C) compared to the northern part. Negative temperature advection by sea breeze helped lower air temperature in the northern area. This study highlights the role of sea breezes as natural cooling mechanisms in coastal cities. Additionally, MPAS-A is feasible for several applications for urban climate studies and climate projection, although further development is needed.

Relationship between Residential Patterns and Socioeconomic Statuses Based on Multi-Source Spatial Data: A Case Study of Nanjing, China

The relationship between residential patterns and socioeconomic statuses highlights the complex interactions between the economic regime, welfare system, and neighborhood effects, which are crucial in urban inequality studies. With the diversification of the housing demand and supply system, the traditional analysis conducted separately from the ethnic or spatial segregation perspective fails to capture the rising inequalities and changing socio-spatial context. Taking Nanjing as an example, based on a multi-source database including the housing price, residential environmental quality, surrounding support facilities, and mobile phone user portrait data, this paper proposed a modified method for discovering the coupling relationship between residential patterns and socioeconomic statuses. It is found that socioeconomic status contributes to residential spatial aggregation and that the relationship between social and spatial dimensions of residential differentiation is tightly coupled and related. The lower socioeconomic strata were displaced to the periphery and the older urban core, while affluent inhabitants were more likely to settle voluntarily in segregated enclaves to isolate themselves from the general population through more flexible housing options. The heterogeneity of the urban socioeconomic dimension is primarily affected by consumption and occupational status, while housing prices mainly determine the divergence of spatial distribution.

Making of the marginal: gender in a new education city

ABSTRACT Global urban studies are undergoing a paradigm shift recognizing the link between urban and rural studies. In this sense, ‘agrarian urbanism’ has become the research focus, especially in the Global South. This paper analyses the changing social relations in Sonipat (Haryana, India) after it was developed as an ‘Education city’. The focus is gender relations with analysis under two categories: ‘locals’ and ‘outsiders’. While urbanization was thought of as a linear process where surplus production in the rural areas would naturally lead to cities, in the global south capitalist real estate-led development has meant that urbanization is often superimposed on existing rural societies, pushing them towards marginalization in favor of gated enclaved urban infrastructure. Employing qualitative interviews, I hypothesize that the private capital-driven urbanization in Sonipat not only geographically marginalizes the existing villages but also engenders dissonant experiences of local and outsider women. The fault lines between the two mean that interaction between them is defined by exploitation and mutual suspicion. Further, I argue that within this dichotomy, women bear the brunt of social control, restricted movement and potential violence.

Multimodal Hong Kong: a multisensory study of environmental perception of places through sight, sound, and smell

Despite the importance of soundscape and smellscape in intangible cultural heritage, little is known about multisensory interactions. To explore the impact of multiple senses on environmental perception, the present study focused on six stalls at Shek Kip Mei wet market in Hong Kong. In the first part of the study, an online survey collected perceptual ratings of whole, auditory, and visual environmental quality, as well as free-form responses of imaginations of smell. Participants (N = 36) were presented with 12 audiovisual captures where audio was either matched with video or mismatched. ANOVA was used to examine the influence of three independent factors - scenes, modes, and a priori valence groups - on the ratings. The imagined smells were analysed through frequency counts of keywords. The results demonstrate participants' capacity to notice changes in audio modes and to perceive the environment through the recognition of scene context and multisensory interactions. In the second part of the study, not discussed in the present paper, we will extend this experimental method to include smells in a laboratory setting. We discuss the importance of understanding multisensory interactions between sight, sound, and smell for environmental perceptions and Hong Kong's intangible cultural heritage and urban studies.

Decarbonizing urban passenger transportation: Policy effectiveness and interactions

The urban passenger transportation plays a pivotal role in achieving ambitious climate targets. Exploring its opportunities for decarbonization requires a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of different policy designs. This study develops an integrated model for simulating the effectiveness and interactions of various policy designs aimed at decarbonizing urban passenger transportation. It distinguishes itself from previous studies by considering a broad range of criteria, including mitigation effectiveness, cost effectiveness, and transition effectiveness. It also assesses the overall performance of various policy options based on these effectiveness criteria. In an urban case study, we have identified the complementary nature of the majority of policy mixes and also revealed conflicting effects when implementing a supplementary policy, such as carbon tax and fuel economy regulation. The concurrent implementation of multiple policies can yield synergistic effects or trade-offs, with the former being widely acknowledged in the context of energy transition, while the latter is more commonly observed in relation to emissions reductions and cost savings. This study also reveals a trade-off effect across various effectiveness criteria, underscoring the significance of formulating well-balanced policy packages to promote sustainable urban passenger transport.