Students In Special Education Programs Research Articles

LITERATE THOUGHT: A COMMENTARY

A number of d/Deaf and hard of hearing students, as well as other students in special education programs, have difficulty accessing academic content information that, traditionally, has been presented in written language in print and electronically (e.g., textbooks, other school materials, etc.). Because this information represents what students need to know, there will be a large gap in their knowledge base, and students will not have ample opportunities to develop a high level of literate thought. That is, students will not be able to represent and manipulate information, solve problems, or develop other higher-level critical thinking skills. This article presents a case for the reconceptualization of literacy—namely, a broadening of our traditional notion of literacy as being able to read and write a written language. This reconceptualization, emphasizing literate thought, requires a discussion of types of literacies and an understanding of constructs such as access and interpretation, illiteracy, and listening comprehension. Also discussed is the intertwinement of literate thought and Universal Design for Learning. The article concludes with questions for further exploration and dialogue.

Undergraduate Students’ Evaluation of Internships in Special Education Programs in Saudi Universities

This study aimed to identify the views of undergraduate students on internships in special education programs in Saudi universities and delineate any statistically significant differences in the students’ views attributable to gender, specialization, university, and grade point average. The study also attempted to investigate the extent to which education outcomes meet the labor market requirements of Saudi Arabia Vision 2030 from the perspective of internship students in special education programs in Saudi universities. To this end, a descriptive approach was applied, using a questionnaire to collect the study data. The study sample consisted of 271 internship students of special education in Saudi universities. The results revealed a high rating level for internships from the perspective of special education students. There were statistically significant differences in the ratings based on gender, with female students reporting better on the academic supervisor dimension. Students specializing in learning disabilities also shared better ratings than those in the autism program, and students with “Excellent” grades reported higher ratings of internship than those with “Good” grades. Overall, there was a high level of compatibility between educational outcomes and the requirements of the labor market stipulated by Vision 2030.

Assistive Technology for Students with Intellectual Disability: Examining Special Education Teachers ‘ Perceptions in Saudi Arabia

Individuals with an intellectual disability (ID) have complex learning needs, and often experience difficulty acquiring new skills that rely solely on traditional teaching materials. Assistive technology (AT) is a powerful tool that plays an important role in addressing many of the issues encountered by those with ID, via the integration of technology in their learning process. This study explores teachers’ views of AT facilities in different special education programs for students with ID in the Makkah province of Saudi Arabia, in order to identify the uses of the AT tools used to teach them. The study employs semi-structured interviews as the data collection method, seeking to determine the current state of AT integration in this field. The data is analyzed using qualitative methods, and the findings reveal that the teachers interviewed incorporate AT into the academic setting, and agree that such technology can foster student learning, assignment completion, and engagement.

Factors Involved in the Overrepresentation of Minority Students in Special Education Programs Through the Lens of Previous Literature

Factors Involved in the Overrepresentation of Minority Students in Special Education Programs Through the Lens of Previous Literature

A culture of equality?

Race-based educational segregation has a long history in the United States and continues to exist even though prohibited by law. Recent manifestations of race-based educational discrimination are found in the overrepresentation of black students in special education programs, their subjugation to high rates of exclusionary discipline, and their underrepresentation in gifted programs. This study used the ProQuest Education database and selected search terms to retrieve records of publications and examine trends in professional literature during four decades. Patterns were found in scholarship related to disproportionate representation of black students in special education programs and the use of exclusionary suspension and expulsion with black students as well as the underrepresentation of black students in gifted programs. The most scholarship was found related to gifted programs, in which blacks were underrepresented, and the amount of scholarship progressively decreased as the level of segregation of black students increased from special education placement to suspension and expulsion. Further, the absolute amount of scholarship and the percentage of works published in scholarly journals were inversely related to the number of search terms with negative connotations used, including special education, minority, and poverty. Use of search terms with negative connotations was positively associated with the percentage of scholarship done by students in the form of dissertations and theses. Conclusions note scholarly findings of reduced adult outcomes caused by inequitable access to educational opportunities and encourage additional research into effective provision of culturally responsive teacher preparation and continuing education as alternatives to reliance on zero-tolerance and other policies that increase educational segregation of black students.

<em>Overcoming Obstacles: African American Students with Disabilities Achieving Academic Success</em>

The purpose of this study was to investigate African American high school students with high incidence disabilities who academically successful. This article tells their story, how they overcame obstacles to reach their academic potential. It includes a discussion of* the overrepresentation of minorities in special education,* African Americans and special education,* teacher beliefs and expectations,* parent and family involvement,* student perceptions, and* a description of the study and its findings.THE OVERREPRESENTATION OFMINORITIES IN SPECIAL EDUCATIONDigging the educational graves of many racially and/or economically disadvantaged children . . . (Dunn, 1968, p. 9) the words used by Lloyd Dunn to express his concern that far too many children from minority and underprivileged backgrounds were being labeled as mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed on the basis of cursory identification procedures and inappropriate use of intelligence testing. Concerns about the overrepresentation of minority groups, mainly African Americans, in special education date back many years and the topic has gained significant attention more recently (e.g., Harry & Klingner, 2006). While some argue that identification of disabilities is important to the acquisition of assistance and accommodations, there is often a stigma, lowered expectations, and inadequate education associated with special education (Harry & Klingner, 2006; Shifrer, 2013).African Americans and students with disabilities (SWDs) both recognized as groups explicitly and historically denied opportunity for education (Blanchett, 2009). Many believed neither group had the right nor the capacity to participate in formal education. The two have run what some would see as a parallel course in the fight for integration and equality, while others argue their movements for equality have not run a parallel course, but instead have converged and collided, resulting in the segregation of many African American students in special education programs (Harry & Klingner, 2006). Critical race theorists in education contend African American schoolchildren are systematically marginalized and miseducated in an educational system that seeks only to highlight what they lack and disregards the cultural wealth they bring to bear (Lynn et al., 2010, p. 291). Critical disability theory argues that traditionally, the response to persons with disabilities is one of either pity or welfarism (Devlin & Pothier, 2006) and that people with disabilities often experience a system of deep structural, economic, social, political, legal, and cultural inequality. Therefore, African Americans with disabilities members of not just one, but two groups that have historically been oppressed and discriminated against.Currently, practices such as culturally responsive teaching and response to intervention (RtI) have been implemented to address the issue of minority overrepresentation in special education (Klingner & Edwards, 2006). Reasons for these practices include an attempt to decrease erroneous placement of students in special education, and to increase learning gains using evidence-based interventions and regular progress monitoring in general education settings (Gersten et al., 2008; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, IDEA, 2004). However, an important focus that remains is the academic progress and postsecondary outcomes for African American SWDs in special education. Individuals with disabilities from minority groups continue to be at high risk for poor school performance, high unemployment, low wages, limited access to postsecondary education and training, and fewer opportunities for living independently and participating fully in their communities (Simon, 2001). Although there African American SWDs who have been able to demonstrate academic success, the special education literature is fraught with negativity regarding this particular group (e. …

An Ongoing Lack of Knowledge About Lead Poisoning

Lead poisoning is a serious health problem facing children in the United States. For that reason, the Pediatric Environmental Health Specialty Unit (PEHSU) network was particularly interested in the recent article by Zhang et al. detailing early lead exposure and poorer educational achievement among school children in Detroit, Michigan.1 The PEHSU is a network of specialists (pediatrics, family medicine, occupational medicine, and medical toxicology) throughout North America who respond to questions from health professionals, policymakers, and the public concerning pediatric environmental health. The PEHSU network responds to inquiries about a diverse array of environmental exposures; however, the most frequent substance of concern is lead. Zhang et al. suggested that, “[t]he control of lead poisoning should focus on primary prevention of lead exposure in children and development of special education programs for students with lead poisoning.” The PEHSU strives to prevent environmentally related health threats by going beyond traditional primary preventative measures to include environmental health education for health care providers.2 Medical students endorse the need for an environmental history, but few ask for an environmental history during a clinical encounter.3 Pediatricians report low self-efficacy regarding environmental history taking, discussing environmental exposures with parents, and finding diagnostic and treatment resources related to environmental exposures.4,5 The PEHSU program’s mission is to provide educational and consultative services to bridge this environmental health knowledge gap.2 The PEHSU database substantiates an ongoing lack of knowledge about lead poisoning. From 2007 to 2012, lead was the primary environmental concern in 36% of the 7512 contacts received by the network. Half of the lead inquires were from health care professionals, and 72% were regarding children aged one to five years. This suggests that clinicians lack comfort identifying and treating lead poisoning. Recently, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 535 000 US children aged one to five years had blood lead levels greater than or equal to five micrograms per deciliter; thus, the impact of this lack of clinician knowledge is significant.6 The environmental contribution to disease in US children was $76.6 billion in 2008.7 The PEHSU program provides a credible, academic, noncommercial source of health information and clinical expertise regarding pediatric environmental health and operates with funding from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and the US Environmental Protection Agency at $1.8 million annually. Delayed or missed identification of children with elevated lead levels is critically important in light of its impact on school achievement and adult health.1,8 The PEHSU network has created its “Recommendations on Medical Management of Childhood Lead Exposure and Poisoning,” which are available at http://aoec.org/PEHSU/documents/medical-mgmnt-childhood-lead-exposure-April2013.pdf.

A Case for Multidimensional Bilingual Assessment

Current assessment practices in the United States are not able to accurately capture the total linguistic, cognitive, and achievement abilities of bilingual learners. There are psychometric complexities involved when assessing and interpreting test results of bilingual students, which impact the validity of this practice. Further, the compromise associated with measuring bilingual students in only one of their two languages has been found to produce a distorted picture, one that has contributed to the overrepresentation of bilingual students in special education programs. This study presents case data using a multidimensional bilingual assessment approach that provides evidence against a single language assessment approach. The results reveal the complexity associated with measuring bilingual students' skills as well as the quandary that is introduced. The case data demonstrate the importance of a multidimensional bilingual assessment that begins with determining a student's cognitive and academic language proficiency. The case data also demonstrate how the reliability and validity of other assessments may be impacted by the unique language development trajectories exhibited by bilingual learners. The study concludes with the recommendation to provide a multidimensional bilingual assessment, which will maximize the reliability and validity of results and provide teachers with the benefit of information in both languages that can then be used to facilitate instructional supports as well as link to meaningful instruction and interventions.

Early Childhood Lead Exposure and Academic Achievement: Evidence From Detroit Public Schools, 2008–2010

We assessed the long-term effect of early childhood lead exposure on academic achievement in mathematics, science, and reading among elementary and junior high school children. We linked early childhood blood lead testing surveillance data from the Detroit Department of Health and Wellness Promotion to educational testing data from the Detroit, Michigan, public schools. We used the linked data to investigate the effect of early childhood lead exposure on academic achievement among school-aged children, both marginally and adjusted for grade level, gender, race, language, maternal education, and socioeconomic status. High blood lead levels before age 6 years were strongly associated with poor academic achievement in grades 3, 5, and 8. The odds of scoring less than proficient for those whose blood lead levels were greater than 10 micrograms per deciliter were more than twice the odds for those whose blood lead levels were less than 1 micrograms per deciliter after adjustment for potential confounders. Early childhood lead exposure was negatively associated with academic achievement in elementary and junior high school, after adjusting for key potential confounders. The control of lead poisoning should focus on primary prevention of lead exposure in children and development of special education programs for students with lead poisoning.

Perspectives regarding disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in high-incidence special education programs in the United States

<b>Background </b><br /> The number of culturally and linguistically diverse students in the U.S. is growing, and research shows they are often underassessed, misdiagnosed, and placed into special education unnecessarily. This problem mainly concerns high-incidence, or judgmental, disabilities such as learning disability, emotional disturbance, or mental retardation. <br /> <br /> <b>Participants and procedure </b><br /> In this study, the author examines how some educators perceive and address culturally and linguistically diverse students in the U.S. A survey developed by the author was used to examine how educators perceive culturally and linguistically diverse student populations and how one Midwestern school system in the United States dealt with culturally and linguistically diverse students’ needs <i>versus</i> expected ideal practices.<br /> <br /> <b>Results</b><br /> Results indicated that most participants recognized that the issue of disproportionate representation is nationwide, but did not believe that their district shared that problem.<br /> <br /> <b>Conclusions</b><br /> Participants indicated that best practices were not being followed maximally to reduce and avoid the problem of disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education programs. Difficulties in meeting students’ needs may be related to cultural differences that school personnel are unable to assess or address. Recommendations include suggestions for further studies and for applying the survey in other school systems to increase the understanding and improve their practice in working with culturally and linguistically diverse students.

The effects of family college savings on postsecondary school enrollment rates of students with disabilities

This is the first study to examine whether parents’ college savings is positively associated with enrollment in postsecondary education of students in special education programs. In addition to examining postsecondary school enrollment among students with disabilities, we also examine whether students’ and parents’ college expectations act as a mediator between parents’ college savings and postsecondary school enrollment. We find that while not all types of college savings are associated with postsecondary enrollment, college bonds are a consistent and strong statistically significant predictor of postsecondary enrollment of students with disabilities. Further, we find evidence that students’ and parents’ college expectations act as a partial mediator between college bonds and enrollment in postsecondary school.

Integrating Dynamic Assessment and Response-to-Intervention in Reading Instruction

Integrating Dynamic Assessment and Response-to-Intervention in Reading Instruction

Universal Screening for Behavioral and Emotional Risk: A Promising Method for Reducing Disproportionate Placement in Special Education

The overrepresentation of U.S. minority students identified for emotional and behavior disorders special education programs plagues schools and challenges researchers and practitioners. Arcane methods including teacher nomination continue to guide referral processes, despite compelling evidence of their influence on disproportionate special education placement for children of color. As universal screening practices are deployed, emerging evidence suggests that requiring a teacher, parent, or student to complete a rating scale may reduce disproportionality. By using available research to posit that if schools engage in universal screening of behavioral and emotional risk using formal scales, fewer children of color would be placed in special education programs. The logical and evidentiary case for universal screening is made and questions requiring more research are presented.Keywords: disproportionality, emotional behavior disorder, behavioral and emotional risk, special education referralEarly intervention and prevention programs have been linked to positive school outcomes such as high school completion, promoting increased well-being, and enhanced resilience (Blair & Diamond, 2008; Greenberg, Domitrovich, & Bumbarger, 2000). Blair and Diamond (2008), for example, found that intervening to improve emotional and behavioral regulation among students at risk for school failure increases their likelihood of academic success. However, current practices for identifying students in need of behavioral and emotional support in schools often fail to identify all students who need support, are implemented after student problems have increased in magnitude, and tend to identify a large number of minority students (Ferri & Conner, 2005; Skiba, Simmons, Ritter, Kohler, Henderson, & Wu, 2006).Increasing pressures on school districts and state education agencies to address the disproportionate number of African American students in special education programs have had little impact on the practices employed for identifying students for these programs (Artiles & Bal, 2008; Artiles, Bal, & King-Thorius, 2010). School districts continue to use teacher referral practices that identify an over representative number of African American students for special education and related services (Ferri & Conner, 2005; Semmel, Gerber & MacMillian, 1994). These practices also overlook the value of norm-referenced child data; these data are rarely used in special education decision-making, including the eligibility determination process (Ferri & Conner, 2005; Kim & Rowe, 2004). For these reasons, a change in the methods used to identify students with behavioral and emotional disorders is warranted. This article reviews research suggesting that the use of student self-report universal screening instruments may diminish the overrepresentation of African American students in special education programs, and guide early intervention for students at risk for behavioral and emotional disorders.DlSPROPORTIONALITYDisproportionality refers to the disproportionate or unequal number of students of color in special education programs. Research in the area of disproportionality generally investigates both the overrepresentation of minority students in special education programs and the underrepresentation of these groups in programs for the gifted and talented, (Waitoller, Artiles, & Cheney 2010). This article will focus on the overrepresentation of Black students being referred for special education services.Researchers have attempted to understand the cause of, and develop remedies for, the overrepresentation of African American students in special education programs for more than five decades (Dunn, 1968; Ferri & Connor, 2005; Ferri, Connor, & Connor, 2010; Harris, Brown, & Richardson, 2004). According to the U.S. Department of Education (2006), African American students are identified with a disability and placed in special education programs at a significantly higher rate than their White peers. …

Learning Disabilities or Difference: A Critical Look at Issues Associated with the Misidentification and Placement of Hispanic Students in Special Education Programs

A new generation of Hispanic students are at risk due to inadequacies in our educational system. The inadequacies which include lack of prepared teachers and misuse of testing and assessment procedures impact special education programs, in particular, when one examines practices relative to Latino students in the area of learning disabilities. The article addresses problems in the definition of learning disabilities, learner variability, and the effects of race, poverty, culture, and language on educational outcomes. The authors call for a new assessment paradigm that would require the restructuring of professional development programs and institutional practices in public schools that are not in line with current research on topics related to this population including second language acquisition and cognitive development.

School Reform and Mental Health Services for Students with Emotional Disturbances Educated in Urban Schools

Outcomes for students in special education continue to be disappointing and those having emotional disturbances (ED) continue to lag behind the other disability groups. In this study, school reform activities and the effects on students who are educated in special education programs for students who have ED were examined. Demographically similar elementary, middle, and high schools in urban communities were classified as either actively engaged in (HI) or not very engaged in (LO) reform activities. Findings indicated students with ED in the HI schools spent more time in academic general education classes with non-handicapped peers; had significantly higher achievement scores in math; and were more likely to receive mental health services from community agencies compared to students in the LO schools. Implications are discussed in terms of current developments in the school-based mental health services research and provider communities to refocus interventions on learning, the core function of schools.

Revamping the funding formula for special education programs in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to determine the services required by students in special education programs and to estimate the cost of adequately funding special education in Taiwan. Questionnaires were administered to 300 special education teachers at the elementary school level to identify the services required. Thereafter, two focus group interviews were organized to determine the service categories and their cost. The results show that the costs for special education programs vary significantly according to severity of disability, and the weighting for mildly, moderately, and severely disabled students was found to be 3.7, 4.5, and 5.2, respectively. The costs also vary significantly according to the category of disability, and the weighting was found to range from 3.6 for emotionally disabled students and to 5.9 for hearing impaired students. These findings suggest that the current special education funding formula in Taiwan, which ignores these cost differences, should be revamped.

Distinguishing disability: parents, privilege, and special education

Students in special education programs can have widely divergent experiences. For some, special education amounts to a dumping ground where schools unload problem students, while for others, it provides access to services and accommodations that drastically improve chances of succeeding in school and beyond. Distinguishing Disability argues that this inequity in treatment is directly linked to the disparity in resources possessed by the students' parents. Since the mid-1970s, federal law has empowered parents of public school children to intervene in virtually every aspect of the decision making involved in special education. However, Colin Ong-Dean reveals that this power is generally available only to those parents with the money, educational background, and confidence needed to make effective claims about their children's disabilities and related needs. Ong-Dean documents this class divide by examining a wealth of evidence, including historic rates of learning disability diagnosis, court decisions, and advice literature for parents of disabled children. In an era of expanding special education enrollment, Distinguishing Disability is a timely analysis of the way this expansion has created new kinds of inequality.

Working With American Indian Students and Families

Although most American Indian students are educated in the public school system, there is limited literature regarding (a) how general and special educators can effectively meet the unique educational needs of these students or (b) what strategies educators can use while working with their families. Additionally, there are limited resources available regarding how American Indians view special education, disability issues, and the relationship between school and family. The worldview of American Indians differs from mainstream America, which has led to the overrepresentation of American Indian students in special education programs. This article provides culturally responsive research-based practices to help foster school and family relationships and improve the educational outcomes of American Indian students.

Unpacking the Placement of American Indian and Alaska Native Students in Special Education Programs and Services in the Early Grades: School Readiness as a Predictive Variable

In this article, Jacob Hibel, Susan Faircloth, and George Farkas investigate the persistent finding that American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) students are overrepresented in special education. Using data from the kindergarten cohort of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, the authors compare the third-grade special education placement rate of AI/AN students to that of other racial/ethnic groups. They find that approximately 15 percent of AI/AN third-graders received special education services, a rate far higher than that of the other racial and ethnic groups. However,using multilevel regression analysis to control for a number of confounding factors,including socioeconomic status and test scores at school entry, they find no statistically significant difference between the special education placement rates of AI/AN and non-Hispanic white students. Controlling for a range of school characteristics,they also find that schools with a higher proportion of AI/AN students place these students in special education at rates similar to those of other schools in the United States. The authors conclude that the strongest predictor of special education placement is a student's academic readiness on entering kindergarten as measured by the student's pre-reading and pre-mathematics scores. They discuss the implications of these findings for future research and practice in the education of AI/AN students.

Extending Classwide Social Skills Interventions to At-Risk Minority Students: A Preliminary Application of Randomization Tests Combined with Single-Subject Design Methodology

Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs is a continuing issue of concern. A social emotional curriculum, the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), was implemented in a classwide and curricular-integrated format with initial effects evaluated for 3 third-grade African American children identified as at risk for special education referral. Effects were examined using direct observations of each target child's cooperative play in a multiple-baseline design across subjects with intervention onset randomized. Visual and randomization test analyses showed increased cooperative play associated with the PATHS intervention. The combined design and analysis may serve as a viable response-to-intervention approach for reducing referral assessment bias of at-risk minority students. Benefits and limitations of the analysis methods and the PATHS intervention are discussed.