Structures In 3D Space Research Articles

Novel 3D versus traditional transesophageal echocardiography techniques: Defining differences in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis.

Despite the availability of current antibiotic and surgical treatment options, infective endocarditis (IE) remains associated with a high mortality rate. Even though two-dimensional (2D) transesophageal echocardiography (TOE) is a major criteria in the diagnosis of IE, it is constrained by the single-plane orientation. Since three-dimensional (3D) TOE provides a comprehensive understanding of the cardiac architecture by allowing for a realistic visualization of the underlying structures in 3D space, it has attracted considerable interest in recent years. The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the advantages and pitfalls of 3D TOE in patients with IE, as well as to address emerging photo-realistic 3D techniques that have the potential to enhance the visualization of cardiac structures in this setting. According to recent research, 3D TOE acquisitions outperform 2D acquisitions in terms of vegetation identification accuracy and embolism risk assessment. By reporting a variety of findings that are missed with 2D TOE, but which are validated by surgical examination, 3D TOE further improves the ability to identify endocarditis complications on both native and prosthetic valves. In addition to conventional 3D TOE, future developments in 3D technology led to the development of transillumination and tissue-transparency rendering, which may improve anatomical understanding and depth perception. Due to the use of both conventional and novel 3D techniques, there are more patients who require surgical intervention, indicating that 3D TOE may have a clinical relevance on the surgical management. 3D TOE might fill the gaps left by 2D TOE in the diagnosis of IE.

Metasurface-guided flexural waves and their manipulations

Elastic metasurfaces, being the subject of much attention and discussion, are first designed by phase modulation and now are also considered as a kind of structures with subwavelength size, e.g., layer structures in 3D space or strip structures in 2D space. However, most of elastic metasurfaces, especially those with phase gradient subunits, cannot support elastic wave propagations along them. In this research, we construct non-resonant metasurfaces with an array of slots in plates and explore a unique form of flexural waves propagating along and decaying exponentially with the increasing of the distance from the metasurfaces, which are called metasurface-guided flexural waves. A theoretical framework is established to solve the dispersion relations of these waves by coupling high-order diffraction and waveguide modes. On the basis of this framework, we design three metasurfaces for rainbow reflection, mode conversion and topological interface state, which are realized and verified by finite element simulations and experiments. Our work provides a new idea for the manipulation of flexural waves in plates, which may have wide potential applications in vibration control, structural health monitoring and acoustic device design.

Inequality constraint on the maximum genus for 3D structural compliance topology optimization

Structural topology constraints in topology optimization are an important research topic. The structural topology is characterized by the topological invariance of the number of holes. The holes of a structure in 3D space can be classified as internally enclosed holes and external through-holes (or tunnels). The genus is the number of tunnels. This article proposes the quotient set design variable method (QSDV) to implement the inequality constraint on the maximum genus allowed in an optimized structure for 3D structural topology optimization. The principle of the QSDV is to classify the changing design variables according to the connectivity of the elements in a structure to obtain the quotient set and update the corresponding elements in the quotient set to meet the topological constraint. Based on the standard relaxation algorithm discrete variable topology optimization method (DVTOCRA), the effectiveness of the QSDV is illustrated in numerical examples of a 3D cantilever beam.

FIRE RESISTANCE DESIGN ANALYSIS FOR STEEL CONNECTIONS USING SPECIALIZED 3D MODELING SOFTWARE

The work presents the design process, analysis and practical evaluation of nodal connections of the beam-column frame of a low-rise building in the BIM design environment for the action of active loads and emergency temperature effects of fire. A study of the use of design tools was conducted. The conduct of such studies is due to the need to increase the reliability of the steel frame in fire conditions and to update the requirements of the normative documents of the Eurocodes regardingthe fire resistance of metal structures. The standard fire mode was considered, the heating parameters ofelements connected in nodes were analyzed. A review of the theoretical foundations of the calculation of steel structures for the high-temperature effect of the working environment showed the feasibility of applying a simplified method of calculation and determination of heating parameters accordingto normative data.Simulated rod diagram of the frame with loads. An analysis of the stress-strain behavior (SSB) ofthe elements under the action of the emergency combination was carried out. 3D modeling of thenode was used for further calculation. The BIM concept is implemented by integrating Robot StructuralAnalysis PC with the IdeaStatica calculation complex. It has been established that the connection ofPC Robot Structural Analysis with the IdeaStatica calculation complex is rational for the design andcalculations of buildings and structures in 3D space and allows using the results of the temperature effect calculation to adjust the structural solution in order to reduce its metal consumption, labor costsand rationalize the reserves of bearing capacity.The presented process of designing frame nodes summarizes approaches to the development of effective structural forms. The use of information models simplified design, optimized work processes, and also made it possible to increase the complexity of nodes both at the level of the designsolution and at the level of the calculation model, taking into account the nonlinear effects of temperature influence.

Reconstruct high-resolution 3D genome structures for diverse cell-types using FLAMINGO

High-resolution reconstruction of spatial chromosome organizations from chromatin contact maps is highly demanded, but is hindered by extensive pairwise constraints, substantial missing data, and limited resolution and cell-type availabilities. Here, we present FLAMINGO, a computational method that addresses these challenges by compressing inter-dependent Hi-C interactions to delineate the underlying low-rank structures in 3D space, based on the low-rank matrix completion technique. FLAMINGO successfully generates 5 kb- and 1 kb-resolution spatial conformations for all chromosomes in the human genome across multiple cell-types, the largest resources to date. Compared to other methods using various experimental metrics, FLAMINGO consistently demonstrates superior accuracy in recapitulating observed structures with raises in scalability by orders of magnitude. The reconstructed 3D structures efficiently facilitate discoveries of higher-order multi-way interactions, imply biological interpretations of long-range QTLs, reveal geometrical properties of chromatin, and provide high-resolution references to understand structural variabilities. Importantly, FLAMINGO achieves robust predictions against high rates of missing data and significantly boosts 3D structure resolutions. Moreover, FLAMINGO shows vigorous cross cell-type structure predictions that capture cell-type specific spatial configurations via integration of 1D epigenomic signals. FLAMINGO can be widely applied to large-scale chromatin contact maps and expand high-resolution spatial genome conformations for diverse cell-types.

A Community of Medical Educators Coming together to lend an “Anatomical” Hand: Showing the Value of an In‐Person Anatomy Lab based Curriculum

Anatomy education has suffered greatly during the Covid‐19 pandemic, forcing medical institutions to switch from in‐person to remote learning. This entails sacrifice of the 3D learning component of the laboratory and creates a major experience gap in the curriculum. At the School of Health Professions of SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, anatomy courses were delivered remotely over the past two summers for the physical therapy, physician assistant, and occupational therapy programs. Student evaluations reveal the perception of their respective cohorts having “lost out” on the value of in‐person experience in the anatomy lab compared to upper classmen who took this course before the pandemic lockdown. To bridge this gap, medical educators came together as a community to offer an in‐person, hands‐on anatomy experience to 94 health professional students. Weill Cornell Medicine hosted the event and provided 20 donor dissection bodies with a total of 16 participating faculty that included anatomy directors from SUNY Albany, University at Buffalo, Icahn and NYU Schools of Medicine, in addition to Emergency department and Rehabilitative Medicine Attendings and former students who are now in private practice. A review of the musculoskeletal system was offered in three distinct categories that involved demonstration of movements, the neurovascular elements involved, and clinicopathologies. The follow up survey reveals positive student responses in all three categories. They also credited the event with providing an appreciation of the three‐dimensionality of the region, citing that remote learning did not offer a full understanding of contiguous anatomical structures in 3D space. What was not measured in the survey were unexpected losses of corollary benefits to other courses that learning human dissection conferred. Program directors reported that some of these students underperformed in their respective programs which was unexpected based on their admissions profile compared to students who had the in‐person anatomy lab experience. What is missing when students do not have a 3‐D appreciation for the musculoskeletal system is their understanding of elements such as direction of muscle fibers (parallel vs pennate), line of pull, and eccentric versus concentric contractions. Human gross anatomy in the laboratory, aside from providing 3D learning, lays the foundation for the problem‐solving skills and professionalism that will be expected of them throughout their health professional careers. Thus, gross anatomy education is not solely a course to “memorize” the names of soft‐tissue structures in 3D space but instead also serves to develop and fortify professional behaviors that will prepare students beyond the laboratory and into the workplace.

Informed Local Smoothing in 3D Implicit Geological Modeling

Geological models are commonly used to represent geological structures in 3D space. A wide range of methods exists to create these models, with much scientific work focusing recently on implicit representation methods, which perform an interpolation of a three-dimensional field where the relevant boundaries are then isosurfaces in this field. However, this method has well-known problems with inhomogeneous data distributions: if regions with densely sampled data points exist, modeling artifacts are common. We present here an approach to overcome this deficiency through a combination of an implicit interpolation algorithm with a local smoothing approach. The approach is based on the concepts of nugget effect and filtered kriging known from conventional geostatistics. It reduces the impact of regularly occurring modeling artifacts that result from data uncertainty and data configuration and additionally aims to improve model robustness for scale-dependent fit-for-purpose modeling. Local smoothing can either be manually adjusted, inferred from quantified uncertainties associated with input data or derived automatically from data configuration. The application for different datasets with varying configuration and noise is presented for a low complexity geologic model. The results show that the approach enables a reduction of artifacts, but may require a careful choice of parameter settings for very inhomogeneous data sets.

Synthesis, Crystallographic Structure, Spectral (FT-IR, UV) Properties, Hirshfeld Surface Analysis and Molecular Docking Studies of a New Cobalt-(II) Complex with Diclofenac Including Nitrogen Donor Ligands

The new diclofenac-based cobalt (II) complex, namely bis {2- [2-(2,6-dichloro anilino) phenyl] acetato-κ'O, O'} bis (2-methyl-1H-imidazole-κN3cobalt (II) has been synthesized and characterized by FT–IR, UV spectroscopies and single crystal X-ray diffraction techniques. The title complex crystallizes in the monoclinic space group I2/a with a = 19.0546(8) Å, b = 13.7167(8) Å, c = 14.7165(7) Å, a = 90˚, b = 13.7167(8) Å and g = 90˚ and Z=4. According to the X-ray diffraction technique results, the cobalt ion is coordinated to diclofenac and methyl imidazole ligands and the title complex adopts a distorted tetrahedral geometry with τ_4^' = 0.75. The monomer is linked by conventional C–H···O and C–H···N intermolecular hydrogen bonds as well as C–H···π interactions to form sheet structures in 3D space. Additionally, the intermolecular interactions in the title complex have examined using Hirshfeld surface analysis technique. The major interactions of the complex are H···H (46%), H···Cl (21%), C···H (17.2%) and O···H (7.6%). Finally, molecular docking studies with different two receptors (5U9D and 4XTA) have been performed to show whether the title molecule has anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory activity, respectively.

Subaru Hyper Suprime-Cam excavates colossal over- and underdense structures over 360 deg2 out to z = 1

ABSTRACT Subaru Strategic Program with the Hyper-Suprime Cam (HSC-SSP) has proven to be successful with its extremely wide area coverage in past years. Taking advantages of this feature, we report initial results from exploration and research of expansive over- and underdense structures at z = 0.3–1 based on the second Public Data Release where optical 5-band photometric data for ∼ eight million sources with i < 23 mag are available over ∼360 deg2. We not only confirm known superclusters but also find candidates of titanic over- and underdense regions out to z = 1. The mock data analysis suggests that the density peaks would involve one or more massive dark matter haloes (>1014 M⊙) of the redshift, and the density troughs tend to be empty of massive haloes over >10 comoving Mpc. Besides, the density peaks and troughs at z ≲ 0.6 are in part identified as positive and negative weak lensing signals respectively, in mean tangential shear profiles, showing a good agreement with those inferred from the full-sky weak lensing simulation. The coming extensive spectroscopic surveys will be able to resolve these colossal structures in 3D space. The number density information over the entire survey field is available as grid-point data on the website of the HSC-SSP data release (https://hsc.mtk.nao.ac.jp/ssp/data-release/).

Cinematic rendering of CT angiography for visualization of complex vascular anatomy after hybrid endovascular aortic aneurysm repair.

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the utility of cinematic rendering (CR) techniques for imaging of patients who have undergone hybrid repair of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms that are difficult to assess given anatomic complexity, particularly in the emergency setting. In this pictorial essay, we will explain why CR techniques are uniquely suited to improving anatomic visualization in patients with complex postoperative vascular anatomy. Verification of vessel patency is critical to optimal care of these patients in any setting, particularly in the emergency patient when clinical history may be lacking. Cinematic rendering (CR) is a recently developed CT post-processing technique for creating photorealistic anatomic visualization. Hybrid abdominal aortic aneurysm repairs involve the use of multiple tortuous and overlapping grafts to preserve blood flow to visceral arteries, which are difficult to adequately evaluate using standard orthogonal planes and with traditional VR techniques. Several examples of complex aortic repairs show the utility of CR for improved visualization of these structures. CR improves upon standard 3D volumetric techniques through improved depiction of the spatial relationships of anatomic structures in 3D space, permitting near life-like visualization that allows the imager to simplify the visualization of highly complex anatomy.

Three-dimensional evaluation of microvascular networks using contrast-enhanced ultrasound and microbubble tracking.

Evaluating tumor microvascular networks with use of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) imaging and one-dimensional (1D) linear array transducers have inherit limitations as tumors exist in volume space. The use of a mechanical sweep allows users to overcome this limitation. To that end, we have developed a new method by which a 1D linear array transducer can be mechanically scanned over a region-of-interest to capture a volume of data allowing for the evaluation of microvasculature structures in 3D space. After intravascular injection of a microbubble (MB) contrast agent into a developing chicken embryo, a sequence of CEUS images were acquired using a Vevo 3100 scanner (VisualSonics Inc) and taken at multiple tissue cross-sections. The CEUS images were processed with a singular value filter (SVF) to help remove any clutter signal. MB localization was performed, and frame-to-frame MB movement was analyzed to produce spatial maps depicting blood flow and velocity at each tissue cross-section. Reconstruction of all images allowed visualization of microvascular networks and blood velocity distribution in volume space.

Recent advances in additive manufacturing technology for bone tissue engineering scaffolds

Appropriate scaffolds for tissue-engineered bone not only require mechanical strength, but also conditions that promote new bone growth. Bone tissue engineering scaffolds should establish the internal pore structure of the scaffolds and promote new bone growth. Additive manufacturing technology is widely used in the field of bone tissue engineering because it can directly and accurately construct the pore structure in 3D space, ensure internal connectivity of the scaffolds, and directly use biological materials. This paper reviews the development of additive manufacturing technology for bone tissue engineering. The differences between various additive manufacturing technologies are reviewed, with emphasis on the application of new technologies and materials. This paper also reviews the modeling processes used in bone tissue engineering, with emphasis on the optimization of the architectural design to achieve gradient structure and improved porosity and mechanical properties. Finally, this paper summarizes the 3D bioprinting technology that has fluid containing nutrients, matrix, and cells as constituent materials. Current problems and directions for the future development of additive manufacturing technology in the field of bone tissue engineering are also discussed.

3D Center Segregation Reconstruction of Steel Continuous Casting Slab

The traditional detection method of the center segregation is limited to quantitatively evaluate the quality of steel casting slab, as it is observed in a 2D plane. Herein, a 3D reconstruction method of center segregation in steel slab is proposed. First, the ultrasonic scanning technology is used to scan the faults of layered and hot‐acid‐etched steel samples to obtain the sequence ultrasonic images. Second, the structures of segregation defects in each slice are segmented by an iterative threshold method. Then, image distortion is corrected and aligned to the same physical space. Finally, the 3D structure of segregation defects is reconstructed. A 70 mm × 30 mm × 2 mm sample of steel casting slab, which grinded with each 0.5 mm, is tested for evaluation, and experimental results show that the proposed method can accurately extract the structure of segregation defects. Based on the proposed method, its structure in 3D space is not only directly observed but also the volume (29.32 mm3) and surface area (649.48 mm2) of defects are calculated to measure the quality of steel slab more accurately. Therefore, it provides a new way to evaluate the steel‐slab quality.

Intraoperative Near-Infrared Fluorescence Imaging With Second-Window Indocyanine-Green Offers Accurate and Real-Time Correction for Brain Shift and Anatomic Inconsistencies in Framless Neuronavigation

Abstract INTRODUCTION Neuronavigation allows neurosurgeons to localize intracranial structures in 3D space and has been shown to have positive impacts on patient survival in neuro-oncology surgery. However, its major limitation is the intraoperative brain-shift phenomenon, in which the brain moves during surgery due to physical, surgical, and/or biological factors, invalidating the preoperative registration and leading to inaccuracies in the cranium. One reliable way to account for brain-shift intraoperatively may be to use tumor-targeting near-infrared fluorophores, such as ICG accumulating in neoplastic tissue (ie, Second-Window ICG), which offers real-time visualization of tumors through normal cortex and dura. METHODS Patients undergoing craniotomy for primary resection of intracranial tumors were enrolled under an ongoing clinical trial investigating the efficacy of SWIG. For this analysis, retrospective data were collected on patients in whom neuronavigation was used to plan the craniotomy in such a way as to place the tumor in the center of the craniotomy (ie, parasagittal tumors, skull-base tumors, and large/asymmetrical tumors were excluded). During surgery, near-infrared imaging was performed before and after durotomy to localize the gross tumor. Image analysis was performed to measure the deviation between the craniotomy center and the center of the tumor as seen with near-infrared fluorescence. RESULTS A total of 63 patients (24 high-grade-gliomas, 12 meningiomas, 25 metastases, 2 others) were included in this preliminary analysis. Neuronavigation demonstrated a median deviation of 22.4% (range 7.7%-44.4%) relative to craniotomy size. Patient position was a significant predictor of neuronavigation inaccuracy, with the prone position having significantly higher inaccuracy (28.5 ± 8.8%) compared to the supine (19.3 ± 9.2%, P-value = .015) or the lateral (17.9 ± 6.6%, P-value = .012) positions. Additionally, the neuronavigation device used and postgraduate training level of the residents performing the registration trended towards significance on multivariate analysis. In contrast, near-infrared fluorescence perfectly delineated the tumor in all cases. CONCLUSION We demonstrate that near-infrared fluorescence imaging offers more accurate localization of intracranial tumors compared to frameless neuronavigation. Near-infrared imaging could potentially be used to adjust neuronavigation registrations intraoperatively to enhance accuracy. Further prospective studies with distance measurements could better explore this potential benefit of intraoperative near-infrared imaging.

A fully parameterized methodology for lattice materials with octahedron-based structures

We propose a methodology to parameterize lattice materials with octahedron-based structures. Transverse-isotropic octahedral repeatable-volume-elements (RVEs) with three mutually perpendicular planes are used to produce periodically arranged structures in 3D-space by translation. In this way, various lattice materials with octahedron-based structures can be generated by very simple RVE models. On this basis, the RVE is analyzed based on Timoshenko beam theory and predictive formulas for the effective Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio in all directions are obtained as the relationship of three types of parameters, i.e., slenderness ratio, lateral restraint ratio and strut angle. A comparison between the experimental and finite element results confirms that the formulas are feasible for both bending-dominated structures and stretching-dominated structures, and are precise than pervious formulas. Last, two examples of parameterization are given to verify the methodology is feasible for designing multi-layer lattice materials with the desired mechanical properties, especially with prescribed anisotropy.

Creating 3D models from Radiologic Images for Virtual Reality Medical Education Modules.

Virtual Reality (VR) is a powerful tool that has increasingly being used by medical field in recent years. It has been mainly used surgical training in particular laparoscopic procedures. VR can be used for the teaching of anatomy. The aim of the study is to show application of transforming 2D radiologic images into 3D model by using thresholding and segmentation and import into VR interface at an affordable cost. Four anatomy modules are created with inputs to control the rotational and translational movement of 3D models in the virtual space. These movements allow users to explore 3D models by using head tilt and gaze input. 3D models of the Circle of Willis, Vertebral Aneurysm, Spine, and Skull are rendered in the user's field of view at runtime. VR is constructed to have many potentials uses in radiology education. Visualization of 3D anatomic structures in a virtual environment give another tool for teaching to students and patients about anatomy of the body. Four anatomy modules described here demonstrate example user interaction patterns best suited for viewing contexts. Instead viewing stacked 2D images or 3D models confined to desktop applications, virtual reality increases user interactivity of education. An intuitive understanding of anatomic structures in 3D space enhances the learning experience for medical students, residents, and patients we are treating.

CAM for On-line Control for Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has the possibility to build metallic structures in 3D space. WAAM system is based on welding process to deposit metallic material and on a robot that moves the welding torch to add material at a given position. For large skeleton structures, it was chosen to deposit material point by point. Welding process induces uctuations.To be fully scalable, two main features must be taken into account. First, monitoring of the process is necessary. Local control on the geometry of the deposition must be used to reach the nal shape. Secondly, some deposition strategies must be implemented to manage branch intersections. To reach these two objectives, an adaptive and modular slicer and a process manager have been developed in order to implement this control. It allows us, if an error occurs during the deposition, to change the position of the eector. To obtain the desired geometry, the CAM software have to be able to, (i) do a slicing during the additive process of the part with a variable deposit height in order to take into account variation of the deposition process and (ii) manage the deposition strategy at intersection to output the position of the torch.

A Green and Sustainable Route to Carbohydrate Vinyl Ethers for Accessing Bioinspired Materials with a Unique Microspherical Morphology.

Synthesizing chemicals and materials from renewable sources is one of the main aims of modern science. Carbohydrates represent excellent renewable natural raw materials that are ecofriendly, inexpensive, and biologically compatible. A green procedure has been developed for the vinylation of carbohydrates by using readily available calcium carbide. Various carbohydrates were utilized as starting materials, resulting in mono-, di-, and tetravinyl ethers in high to excellent yields (81-92 %). The synthesized biobased vinyl ethers were utilized as monomers in free radical and cationic polymerizations. A unique combination of a smooth surface and intrinsic microcompartments was achieved in the synthesized materials. Two types of biobased materials were prepared involving microspheres and intrinsic hollow compartments in polymers. Scanning electron microscopy with built-in ion beam cutting was applied to reveal the spatial hierarchical structures in 3D space.

Crossing Phenomena in Overhead Line Equipment (OHLE) Structure in 3D Space Considering Soil-Structure Interaction

Nowadays, the electric train becomes one of the efficient railway systems that are lighter, cleaner, quieter, cheaper and faster than a conventional train. Overhead line equipment (OHLE), which supplies electric power to the trains, is designed on the principle of overhead wires placed over the railway track. The OHLE is supported by mast structure which located at the lineside along the track. Normally, mast structure is a steel column or truss structure which supports the overhead wire carrying the power. Due to the running train and severe periodic force, such as an earthquake, in surrounding area may cause damage to the OHLE structure especially mast structure which leads to the failure of the electrical system. The mast structure needs to be discussed in order to resist the random forces. Due to the vibration effect, the natural frequencies of the structure are necessary. This is because when the external applied force occurs within a range of frequency of the structure, resonance effect can be expected which lead to the large oscillations and deflections. The natural frequency of a system is dependent only on the stiffness of the structure and the mass which participates with the structure, including self-weight. The modal analysis is used in order to calculate the mode shapes and natural frequencies of the mast structure during free vibration. A mast structure with varying rotational soil stiffness is used to observe the influence of soil-structure action. It is common to use finite element analysis to perform a modal analysis. This paper presents the fundamental mode shapes, natural frequencies and crossing phenomena of three-dimensional mast structure considering soil-structure interaction. The sensitivity of mode shapes to the variation of soil-structure interaction is discussed. The outcome of this study will improve the understanding of the fundamental dynamic behaviour of the mast structure which supports the OHLE. Moreover, this study will be a recommendation for the structural engineer to associate with the behaviour of mast structure during vibration.

Generalized 3D fragmentation index derived from lidar point clouds

BackgroundPoint clouds with increased point densities create new opportunities for analyzing landscape structure in 3D space. Taking advantage of these dense point clouds we have extended a 2D forest fragmentation index developed for regional scale analyses into a 3D index for analyzing vegetation structure at a much finer scale.MethodsBased on the presence or absence of points in a 3D raster (voxel model) the 3D fragmentation index is used to evaluate the configuration of a cell’s 3D neighborhood resulting in fragmentation classes such as interior, edge, or patch. In order to incorporate 3D fragmentation into subsequent conventional 2D analyses, we developed a transformation of this 3D fragmentation index into a series of 2D rasters based on index classes.ResultsWe applied this method to a point cloud obtained by airborne lidar capturing a suburban area with mixed forest cover. All processing and visualization was done in GRASS GIS, an open source, geospatial processing and remote sensing tool. The newly developed code is also publicly available and open source. The entire processing chain is available and executable through Docker for maximum reproducibility.ConclusionsWe demonstrated that this proposed index can be used to describe different types of vegetation structure making it a promising tool for remote sensing and landscape ecology. Finally, we suggest that processing point clouds using 3D raster methods including 3D raster algebra is as straightforward as using well-established 2D raster and image processing methods.