Macroinvertebrate Assemblage Structure Research Articles

Variation in macroinvertebrate assemblages and water quality as a test for different levels of ecological impairment across an Ethiopian highland river system

The Ethiopian highlands is an area under high anthropogenic pressure. Despite being a hotspot for freshwater biodiversity, there is no regular monitoring of the ecological status of local rivers. Physicochemical and nutrient water-quality parameters and macroinvertebrate assemblages were sampled monthly from the Megech River and its tributaries from January to March 2021. Sampling locations were designated as being either upstream or downstream of the Gondar City urban area. We tested for temporal (monthly) and spatial (location, river) variation in water quality and spatial (location, river) variation in macroinvertebrate assemblage structure, and examined which water quality parameters were most associated with patterns in macroinvertebrate assemblages. Water quality varied significantly between locations and months, but not between rivers. Water quality differences were particularly driven by higher nutrient, salinity, dissolved solids and conductivity levels downstream, and higher pH and dissolved oxygen levels upstream. Despite macroinvertebrate assemblages being more abundant and diverse downstream, biotic index scores generally indicated slightly increased ecological impairment downstream. There was a clear spatial pattern in macroinvertebrate assemblages between locations. We detected a significant difference between rivers, with pairwise differences between sampling locations, particularly due to high dissimilarity between the upstream and downstream locations of the Angereb, Shinta and Qeha rivers. BIO-ENV Pearson correlations indicated that variation in macroinvertebrate assemblages were mostly explained by dissolved oxygen, salinity and nutrient parameters including nitrate, ammonium, and sulphate. Our findings confirm the need for more rigorous monitoring of Ethiopian highland rivers and improved management of nutrient inputs.

The structure and diversity of macroinvertebrate assemblages associated with the understudied pseudo-kelp Saccorhiza polyschides in the Western English Channel (UK)

We examined spatiotemporal variability in the structure of faunal assemblages associated with the warm-temperate pseudo-kelp Saccorhiza polyschides towards its range centre (Western English Channel, southwest UK), to better understand its role as a habitat-former in the northeast Atlantic. A total of 180 sporophytes and their associated fauna were sampled across three months, three sites, and two depths. Assemblage abundance and biomass varied markedly between three morpho-functional sporophyte components (i.e., holdfast, stipe, blade). We recorded rich and abundant macroinvertebrate assemblages, comprising nine phyla, 28 coarse taxonomic groups, and 57 species of molluscs, which consistently dominated assemblages. We observed pronounced seasonality in faunal assemblage structure, marked variability between sites and depths, and strong positive relationships between biogenic habitat availability and faunal abundance/biomass. S. polyschides sporophytes are short-lived and offer temporary, less-stable habitat compared with dominant perennial Laminaria species, so shifts in the relative abundances of habitat-formers will likely alter local biodiversity patterns.

Temporal and spatial drivers of the structure of macroinvertebrate assemblages associated with Laminaria hyperborea detritus in the northeast Atlantic

Kelp forests occur on more than a quarter of the world's coastlines, serving as foundation species supporting high levels of biodiversity. They are also a major source of organic matter in coastal ecosystems, with the majority of primary production released and exported as detritus. Kelp detritus also provides food and shelter for macroinvertebrates, which comprise important components of inshore food-webs. Hitherto, research on kelp detritus-associated macroinvertebrate assemblages remains relatively limited. We quantified spatiotemporal variability in the structure of detritus-associated macroinvertebrate assemblages within Laminaria hyperborea forests and evaluated the influence of putative drivers of the observed variability in assemblages across eight study sites within four regions of the United Kingdom in May and September 2015. We documented 5167 individuals from 106 taxa with Malacostraca, Gastropoda, Isopoda and Bivalvia the most abundant groups sampled. Assemblage structure varied across months, sites, and regions, with highest richness in September compared to May. Many taxa were unique to individual regions, with few documented in all regions. Finally, key drivers of assemblage structure included detritus tissue nitrogen content, depth, sea surface temperature, light intensity, as well as L. hyperborea canopy density and canopy biomass. Despite their dynamic composition and transient existence, accumulations of L. hyperborea detritus represent valuable repositories of biodiversity and represent an additional kelp forest component which influences secondary productivity, and potentially kelp forest food-web dynamics.

Structure and Diversity of Mobile Macro-invertebrate Assemblages Associated to Different Seaweeds

Structure and Diversity of Mobile Macro-invertebrate Assemblages Associated to Different Seaweeds

Exposure to fipronil, 2,4-D and vinasse influences macroinvertebrate assemblage structure: An experimental mesocosm approach

Sugarcane is one of the main monocultures in Brazil and widely uses herbicide 2,4-D and fipronil insecticide. In addition, vinasse can be mentioned as it is widely used in this plantation. These compounds occurring simultaneously in the aquatic environment can potentiate the deleterious effects on organisms. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the composition, abundance and ecological indices of the benthic macroinvertebrate community, as well as its ability to reestablish itself considering environmental contamination by the pesticides Regent® 800WG (active ingredient - a.i. fipronil) (F) and DMA® 806BR (a.i. 2,4-D) (D) and vinasse (V), alone and in mixtures: pesticides - M and the three contaminants - MV. The study was conducted using open-air mesocosms. The macroinvertebrate community was monitored by colonization structures, the physical-chemical parameters, metals and pesticides were determined and the effects of contaminants were evaluated over the exposure time in 1, 7, 14, 28, 75 to 150 days. A multiple regression was performed between the water parameters and significant relationships were found between parameters associated with vinasse contamination (pH, total nitrogen, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen) and concentration of fipronil and the ecological variables studied. Over time, changes were observed in the composition of the community. The dominance and richness increased in treatments V and MV. The family Chironomidae and subclass Oligochaeta were more sensitive to the treatment V and MV, while individuals from the families Phoridae, Ephydridae and Sciomyzidae were occasionally found (depending on the experimental time) in these treatments. The insects were sensitive to treatments F and M, disappearing in these mesocosms after contamination, reappearing only after 75 days. The results reveal that sugarcane management practices associated with the use of pesticides and vinasse as fertilizer pose risks to the macroinvertebrate community with consequences for the trophic chains, given its importance in freshwater ecosystems and adjacent terrestrial environments.

Physical habitat condition as a key tool to maintain freshwater biodiversity in neotropical artificial ponds

In areas highly affected by anthropogenic disturbances, artificial (human-made) freshwater ecosystems can provide habitat for maintaining and conserving regional freshwater biodiversity. We assessed how the physical habitat of artificial ponds affected the structure of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages. To do so, we tested two hypotheses. (1) Physical habitat disturbances are not detrimental to the diversity of nearby artificial ponds, and (2) Physical habitat disturbances do not cause significant shifts in taxonomic composition. Our results rejected both null hypotheses, i.e., macroinvertebrate diversity metrics correlated significantly and positively with Physical Habitat Integrity index scores, and only sites with high habitat condition scores were significantly associated with sensitive indicator taxa. Our results highlight the importance of maintaining physical habitat conditions for sustaining the ecological health of artificial ponds.

Assessment of hydrological barriers effect in river benthic fauna coupled with eDNA metabarcoding monitoring

Anthropogenic activities alter the rivers’ hydromorphological characteristics, affecting the ecosystems. River continuum interruption is identified as a principal cause of longitudinal quality variation. Macroinvertebrates, the most common biological quality indicator, are usually coupled with hydromorphological alteration assessment protocols. Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding is a recent advance in biomonitoring, complementing classical assessment, responding to time and cost-efficiency limitations. This study assesses the hydromorphological effects of two barriers (sluice and rock ramp) in a large Mediterranean modified river on the structure of macroinvertebrate assemblages using the classical method, coupled with eDNA metabarcoding while it further correlates them with the alteration of the riparian zone. Samplings were conducted at three stations for each barrier, one upstream and two downstream, during high and low flow periods. A range of statistical tests were performed for the assemblages’ comparison, the diversity indices and the investigation of spatial and temporal patterns. The findings include differences among communities’ composition for the two approaches with a moderate overlap between eDNA and classical taxonomy. The ramp had lower influence on biota in comparison to the sluice. Regarding the spatial pattern, no significant differences were revealed for both methods, but it could be attributed to the barriers’ operation extent. As for a temporal pattern, there was a difference between the two methods and, while no separation was noted among the sites as a sum, site-specific differences were found. If some problems concerning the taxonomic assignment of ASVs, the sampling methodology and the primers selection are surpassed, eDNA proves a valuable tool.

Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in large river secondary channels: Contemporaneous and legacy effects of flow connectivity

AbstractIn large rivers, secondary channels occur where the main channel is divided by an instream island, forming one or multiple smaller channels outside the main channel. Secondary channels are highly variable in morphometry, flow characteristics, and degree of connectivity to the main channel. Engineered closing structures at the upstream end of most secondary channels restrict inflow from the main channel, resulting in gradients of flow connectivity among secondary channels that vary with river stage. We investigated the relationship of flow connectivity to benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage richness and structure among a series of secondary channels of the Lower Mississippi River. Samples were collected over 2 years at times of high and low river stages. We discovered (1) macroinvertebrate assemblage structure and taxonomic richness varied along the flow connectivity gradient, and (2) there was a legacy effect of prior connection on assemblage structure that lasted up to a year. We contend that for management and restoration planning aimed at conservation of large river biological diversity, an important consideration are the life history requirements of animals utilizing secondary channel habitats.

The past is never dead: legacy effects alter the structure of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages

Land use is the most common and widespread threat to lotic ecosystem health and freshwater biodiversity conservation. The legacy effects of past anthropogenic land use and cover may also affect the structure and functioning of current lotic ecosys¬tems. Therefore, the aim of this study was to use benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages to evaluate the potential legacy effects of anthropogenic land use on headwater streams in the Neotropical Savanna. We tested three hypotheses. (1) The legacy effects on macroinvertebrates of the riparian zone are more important than those of the entire catchment. (2) Recent deforestation has a stronger effect on the current taxonomic structure of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages than historical deforestation. (3) Sen-sitive taxa respond more readily than tolerant taxa to historical deforestation. To test these hypotheses, we estimated deforestation over the last 30 years for 97 stream sites in 5 hydrological units and tested it against benthic macroinvertebrate abundance, taxa richness, EPT abundance, EPT richness, Shannon-Wiener diversity, and Simpson diversity. The two first hypotheses were cor¬roborated, as Shannon-Wiener and Simpson diversity indices were significantly correlated with deforestation in the riparian zone (p < 0.05) and these diversity variables were positively correlated with older deforestation, meaning that such sites tended to recover their diversity over time after a deforestation event. The third hypothesis was only partially supported because EPT (sensitive taxa) did not represent most taxa with significant correlations with historical deforestation at catchment scale, but were the only taxa to do so at the 200 m riparian buffer. We conclude that recent deforestation has more significant effects, but past deforestation still plays a significant role in the structure and functioning of lotic ecosystems.

Pressões humanas degradam a condição ecológica do Alto Ribeirão Graipu

ABSTRACT Environmental degradation from human pressures includes the conversion of native vegetation cover into pastures and cropland, as well as riparian deforestation, leading to river siltation, biotic homogenization, and loss of ecosystem services. The objective of our study was to evaluate water quality and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage structure in response to changes in land use at local and buffer spatial extents. We assumed that human disturbances negatively affect water quality and macroinvertebrate assemblage condition. Greater human influence was observed at the local extent (Local Disturbance Index – LDI) than at the buffer (Buffer Disturbance Index – BDI) extent. Likewise, biological metric responses were stronger relative to the LDI than to the BDI or to the Integrated Disturbance Index (IDI). These results support establishing a biomonitoring program for assessing water body quality in the Doce River basin to facilitate conserving aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services in the upper Graipu River.

Environmental factors are the major drivers of macroinvertebrate assemblage structure in southern Brazilian coastal lakes

AbstractCoastal freshwater lakes are distinctive landscape features in South America, and benthic macroinvertebrates are key to their ecological functioning. Identifying the main factors driving the assemblage structure of benthic macroinvertebrate is thus important for the development of management strategies in these ecosystems. However, studies on the drivers of macroinvertebrate assemblages are scarce in subtropical coastal lakes of the Neotropical region. Here, we evaluated the role of environmental (morphometric and water chemistry variables) and spatial factors in the assemblage structure of benthic macroinvertebrates in 36 coastal freshwater lakes in Brazil from 2008 to 2015. Macroinvertebrate family richness increased with ammonium, pH and water transparency, and decreased with nitrate content (slope ≈1 for all significant variables). Environmental factors explained most of the variation in macroinvertebrate composition (16%) compared to spatial ones (3.4%). In specific, Dugesiidae, Hydrobiidae, Corbiculidae, Sphaeromatidae, Noteridae, Hydropsychidae, Culicidae and Ceratopogonidae predominated in lakes with lower conductivity (<100 μS/cm) and higher water transparency (>1 m). Spatial factors summarized differences in macroinvertebrate assemblages between isolated and connected lakes. Although none of the lakes studied are directly impacted by organic pollution, our results suggest that benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in subtropical coastal lakes are mostly structured by water chemistry, likely reflecting the major trends in land use along the study region (transition from agriculture to urban areas). We recommend that the conservation of macroinvertebrate biodiversity in southern Brazilian coastal lakes focus on the monitoring of water chemistry factors associated with human‐based land use.

Developing environmental flow targets for benthic macroinvertebrates in large rivers using hydraulic habitat associations and taxa thresholds

Holistic environmental flows frameworks are built on our understanding of key flow-ecology relationships that support sensitive taxa and critical ecosystem functions under different flow and water level scenarios. Most research on flow-ecology relationships has typically focused on small systems, with less known about flow associations, indicator taxa, and environmental thresholds of assemblage change along hydraulic gradients of large non-wadeable rivers. We assessed benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage structure and applied Taxa Indicator Threshold ANalysis (TITAN) on biomonitoring data collected during a six-year period in the Wolastoq | Saint John River in Atlantic Canada. Flow velocity was strongly associated with the distribution and relative abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates in the river, and taxon associations reflected functional adaptations to flow. We identified 33 genus-level indicator taxa that were either positively or negatively associated with flow velocity. Weaker taxa responses were shown for the gradient in median substrate particle size where 22 negatively and positively responding taxa were identified. We predicted changes in indicator taxon abundance under different flow scenarios using a hydrodynamic model, and characterised the distribution and availability of suitable hydraulic habitat patches within a 20 km reach downstream of a large hydropower generating station. These observations set the stage for the development of ecologically-based flow targets to support holistic environmental flow management in large rivers.

Relationships between Physico-Chemical Parameters and Taxonomic Structure of Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblages in Streams of West Cameroon

Tropical rivers are strongly influenced by stormwaters, pollutants and agro-pastoral activities. These systems are no longer able to maintain their native biota. Therefore, it seems important to understand how biological assemblages are driven by environmental gradients at different spatial scales. However, information on the relationships between the distribution of aquatic macroinvertebrates and environmental variables remains scarce in Cameroon. To improve our knowledge on the drivers of such distributions, a study was carried out at 11 contrasted sites from three catchments located in West Cameroon. This study aimed at understanding the spatio-temporal variations of 19 taxonomic metrics calculated for the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages of these sites sampled during 13 months, concurrently with physico-chemical analyses of water quality. Two hundred and twelve taxa were caught. Diptera(rf-S), Shannon-Wiener diversity, 1–GOLD, total richness, Pielou evenness and Heteroptera(rf-S) revealed their high ability to respond to anthropogenic pressures or disturbances. Conductivity, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, nitrates, total hardness and alkalinity were identified as the main physico-chemical drivers of the taxonomic structure of benthic assemblages. These results will allow further exploration of the implementation of a tool for monitoring the ecological quality of West Cameroon rivers.

Responses of multiple facets of macroinvertebrate alpha diversity to eutrophication in floodplain lakes

The accelerated eutrophication of freshwater lakes has become an environmental problem worldwide. Increasing numbers of studies highlight the need to incorporate functional and phylogenetic information of species into bioassessment programms, but it is still poorly understood how eutrophication affects multiple diversity facets of freshwater communities. Here, we assessed the responses of taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates to water eutrophication in 33 lakes in the Yangtze River floodplain in China. Our results showed that macroinvertebrate assemblage structure was significantly different among four lake groups (river-connected, macrophyte-dominated, macrophyte-algae transition, and algae-dominated). Three taxonomic, two phylogenetic and two functional diversity indices were significantly different among the lake groups. Except for the increasing trend of Lambda+, these metrics showed a clear decreasing trend with increasing levels of eutrophication, with highest values detected in river-connected and macrophyte-dominated lakes, followed by macrophyte-algae transition lakes and algal-dominated lakes. Although differing in the number and identity of key environmental and spatial variables among the explanatory models of different diversity indices, environmental factors (eutrophication-related water quality variables) played more important role than spatial factors in structuring all three facets of alpha diversity. The predominant role of environmental filtering can be attributed to the strong eutrophication gradient across the studied lakes. Among the three diversity facets, functional diversity indices performed best in portraying anthropogenic disturbances, with variations in these indices being solely explained by environmental factors. Spatial factors were mostly weak or negligible in accounting for the variation in functional diversity indices, implying that trait-based indices are robust in portraying anthropogenic eutrophication in floodplain lakes. However, variation in some taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity indices were also affected by spatial factors, indicating that conservation practitioners and environmental managers should use these metrics with caution when providing solutions for addressing eutrophication in floodplain lakes.

Anthropogenic land‒use impacts on the size structure of macroinvertebrate assemblages are jointly modulated by local conditions and spatial processes.

Body size descriptors and associated resemblance measurements may provide useful tools for forecasting ecological responses to increasing anthropogenic land‒use disturbances. Yet, the influences of agriculture and urbanisation on the size structure of biotic assemblages have seldom been investigated in running waters. Using a comprehensive dataset on stream macroinvertebrates from 21 river basins across Western Finland, we assessed whether the structure of assemblages via changes in taxonomic composition and body size distributions responded predictably to anthropogenic land‒use impacts. Specifically, we applied a combination of resemblance measurements based on cumulative abundance profiles and spatially constrained null models to understand faunal impairment by agricultural and urban development, and the most likely mechanisms underlying the observed shifts in assemblage size structure. Anthropogenically impacted stream sites showed less variation in assemblage composition and size distributions compared with least‒disturbed sites, with strong declines in internal variation also occurring for the transition from near‒pristine to moderately impacted landscapes. These results were consistent whether based on species‒level or genus‒level data. Variation in assemblage size structure seemed to be more predictable than taxonomic composition, supporting the notion that resemblance measurements based on body size distributions can represent an improvement to more traditional approaches based on taxonomic identities alone. In addition, we showed that macroinvertebrate assemblages resulted from effects of land‒use degradation mediated through local conditions and spurious spatial structures in the distribution of anthropogenic activities across the landscape. Overall, our findings suggest that existing water policies and agri‒environment schemes should be guided not only by understanding the individual effects of agricultural and urban development on taxonomic composition at a given stream site. Rather, we should also acknowledge the size structure of stream assemblages and whether concomitant changes in local conditions and the non‒random distribution of human infrastructures are likely to mitigate or accelerate these effects.

Homogenization of Macroinvertebrate Assemblages and Asiatic Clam Corbicula fluminea Invasion in a River of the Arid Patagonian Plateau, Argentina

The invasion of the Asiatic clamCorbicula flumineain South America has already reached Patagonia. Despite the well-known direct and indirect impacts that this species exerts on fresh-water ecosystems, particularly on benthic communities, few studies have been undertaken on its effect on the composition and structure of aquatic macroinvertebrate assemblages. This study evaluated the effects of the invasion of the Asiatic clamC. flumineaon the aquatic macroinvertebrate assemblages of the Limay River, one of the most important rivers of the arid plateau of Argentinian Patagonia. As this river is currently in the process of being invaded, it was possible to compare invaded and non-invaded sites. Invaded sites displayed a certain homogenization of their constituent species and functional composition. Non-metric multidimensional scaling, similarity analysis and similarity percentages showed negative or positive influence of the presence of this species on the abundance of some taxa, due to competition for resources in this low-productivity Patagonian ecosystem. The deposition of the faeces and pseudo-faeces ofC. flumineaenriches the organic content of the sediments. However, its pedal feeding can function as a competitive strategy: by consuming its own deposited organic matter when food is scarce, the amount available to other macroinvertebrates is reduced. This paper is the first contribution on the impact of this invasion on northern Patagonia’s aquatic macroinvertebrate assemblages.

Influence of river regulation and instream habitat on invertebrate assemblage’ structure and function

Dams modify geomorphology, water quantity, quality and timing of stream flows affecting ecosystem functioning and aquatic biota. In this study, we addressed the structural and functional macroinvertebrate community alterations in different instream mesohabitats of two Portuguese rivers impaired by dams. We sampled macroinvertebrates in riffles, runs and pools of river sites downstream of the dams (i.e. regulated; n = 24) and in sites without the influence of the dams (i.e. unregulated; n = 7), assessing a total of 64 mesohabitats, following late spring-early summer regular flows. We found a distinct taxonomic structure and trait composition of macroinvertebrate assemblages between regulated and unregulated flow sites, and also between mesohabitats in which the differences were more evident. When analysing each mesohabitat individually, the effect of flow regulation was detected only in run-type mesohabitats for both taxonomic and trait composition, leading us to infer that a selective macroinvertebrate assessment on run mesohabitats would be a valuable contribution to detect regulated flow effects on ecosystems impaired by dams. Additionally, there is evidence that respiration and locomotion traits could be effective tools to identify damming flow alterations. This study supports that the quality assessments of rivers impacted by dams could benefit from a sampling approach focused on run mesohabitats and the detection of some key traits, which would improve assessment accuracy.

Filter and deposit: a potential role of freshwater mussels in ecosystem functioning associated with enhanced macroinvertebrate assemblage structure in a Neotropical river

Filter and deposit: a potential role of freshwater mussels in ecosystem functioning associated with enhanced macroinvertebrate assemblage structure in a Neotropical river

Dam cascade alters taxonomic composition of benthic macroinvertebrate community in upper Yangtze River

AbstractCascade dams segment river connectivity, modify the hydrological process, and change the hydraulic properties, thus influencing the river ecosystem significantly. Ecological effects of dams have been extensively studied, but investigations on zoobenthos in a large area covering tributaries and mainstream with cascade dams are lacking. Here, we studied the features of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in the lower Jinshajiang River, which is the upper reach of the Yangtze River. Over 15,000 macroinvertebrate individuals were collected in the mainstream and eight tributaries. Altogether, 105 taxa belonging to 19 orders and 55 families were identified. The structure of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages was considerably different between the natural‐flow reach and the reservoir reach in the mainstream. The diversity and abundance of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and Megaloptera decreased to almost zero as a result of dam impoundment. By contrast, the abundance of Diptera, Chironomidae, and Tubificida increased significantly in the mainstream reservoir reach. The diversity of macroinvertebrate species in the mainstream reservoir reach was only half of that in the natural‐flow mainstream. The difference between macroinvertebrate assemblages in natural‐flow mainstream and tributaries was insignificant. Therefore, dam construction was considered the main cause of macroinvertebrate assemblage changes. Our results highlighted the necessity of maintaining sufficient natural river sections between cascade reservoirs to conserve the biodiversity of benthic macroinvertebrate.

Influence of climate seasonality on the effectiveness of the use of aquatic macroinvertebrates in urban impact evaluation in central Amazonia

Natural fluctuations in ecosystems, such as those associated with climate, are a fundamental factor structuring macroinvertebrate assemblages. Given that macroinvertebrates are widely used in biomonitoring of aquatic systems, it is necessary assess the potential effects of seasonality on this group to avoid confusing its effects with the effects of anthropogenic impacts. In the present study, the richness, assemblage composition, and abundance of macroinvertebrates of Amazonian streams (n = 23) were compared among four periods—the start and apex of dry period, and the start and apex of rainy period. For these comparisons, were considered the conditions of the streams in three categories: (i) pristine, (ii) impacted by deforestation, and (iii) impacted by deforestation and pollution with raw sewage. The results indicate no significant variation among periods in the richness (p = 0.397), abundance (p = 0.420), and assemblage composition (p = 0.274) of the macroinvertebrates, which respond to anthropogenic impact irrespective of the seasonal period. Given this, representative samples can be obtained during any given period of the year, reducing field costs and sample processing time, enabling the reliable and rapid diagnosis of streams.