Structural Magnetic Resonance Research Articles

Magnetic resonance imaging methods in developmental science: A primer

Structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are increasingly common research methods among investigators interested in typically and atypically developing populations. However, the effective use of these tools requires an understanding of the basis of the magnetic resonance signal, as well as some of the additional experimental complications that arise when collecting MRI data from developmental populations. This primer provides a foundation for investigators who wish to utilize MRI methods in their research and whose primary interest involves typically and atypically developing populations. The basic concepts of MRI physics are introduced, as well as the typical MRI scanner components and their role in MRI data acquisition. In addition, a variety of scan types (structural, functional, diffusion tensor) are discussed, along with a number of important experimental design factors that can impact the quality and utility of the data collected. Special consideration is given to working with pediatric and special populations.

Magnetic resonance imaging as a tool for in vivo and ex vivo anatomical phenotyping in experimental genetic models.

This article describes a suite of computational approaches suitable for deriving various quantitative phenotypes from structural magnetic resonance (MR) images obtained in rodents and used subsequently in genetic studies of complex traits. We begin by introducing the basic principles of genetic studies of complex traits in experimental models. We then illustrate the use of MR-based computational anatomy in vivo and ex vivo, and in combination with histology. This work was carried out in two inbred strains of rats, namely spontaneously hypertensive rats and Brown Norway rats; these are parental strains of the only existing panel of recombinant inbred strains of rats. The rats were scanned in vivo at two time points (at 8 and 12 weeks of age) and ex vivo (at 12 weeks of age). We describe between-strain differences and across-time changes in brain and kidney volumes, as well as regional variations in brain structure using surface- and deformation-based approaches. We conclude by discussing the power of the population-based computational analysis of MR images, and their fusion with histology, in studies of complex traits.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Thalamus and Adhesio Interthalamica in Twins With Schizophrenia

Abnormalities of the thalamus are thought to be central to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. These abnormalities include altered structure and shape of the thalamus itself and possibly changes to the adhesio interthalamica (or massa intermedia), the gray matter bridge connecting the 2 thalamic lobes. However, it is not clear to what extent these abnormalities are determined by the genetic liability for schizophrenia. To investigate thalamic volume and the presence of the adhesio interthalamica in monozygotic (MZ) twins concordant or discordant for schizophrenia. Study of MZ twins. Patients were drawn from inpatient and outpatient clinics. Twin controls were recruited from a volunteer twin register and through media advertisements. A total of 123 twins participated: 19 MZ twin pairs concordant for schizophrenia, 15 MZ schizophrenic twins and 16 MZ nonschizophrenic twins drawn from 17 pairs discordant for schizophrenia, and 27 MZ twin pairs without schizophrenia. Groups were matched for age, sex, handedness, level of education, parental socioeconomic status, and ethnicity. The volume of the thalamus (including right and left hemispheres) was measured (in cubic centimeters) and the presence of the adhesio interthalamica was ascertained from structural magnetic resonance images. Concordant twin pairs displayed significantly reduced thalamic volume compared with control twins, even when covarying for effects of whole-brain volume, age, and sex. There was a significant linear decrease in thalamic volume (control greater than discordant nonschizophrenic greater than discordant schizophrenic greater than concordant). In all groups, right thalamus was larger than left thalamus. There was no difference across groups in the frequency of the adhesio interthalamica. Volumetric thalamic abnormalities in schizophrenia occur in twin pairs concordant for schizophrenia. These abnormalities may mark the substantial genetic contribution to the illness seen in concordant twin pairs, whereas the adhesio interthalamica is unlikely to be affected in schizophrenia.

Pattern of cerebral hypoperfusion in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment measured with arterial spin-labeling MR imaging: Initial experience

PurposeTo prospectively determine if pulsed arterial spin-labeling perfusion magnetic resonance (MR) imaging depicts regional cerebral hypoperfusion in subjects with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), compared with perfusion in cognitively normal (CN) subjects, that is consistent with results of fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) and hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime (HMPAO) single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) studies of similar populations. Materials and methodsInstitutional review board approval and informed consent were obtained. 20subjects with AD (13men, 7women; mean age=72.9years), 18 with MCI (9men, 9women; mean age=73.3years), and 23CN subjects (10men, 13women; mean age=72.9years) underwent arterial spin-labeling and volumetric T1-weighted structural MR imaging. Perfusion images were coregistered to structural images, corrected for partial volume effects (PVEs) with information from the structural image to determine tissue content of perfusion voxels, and normalized to a study-specific template. Analyses of perfusion differences between groups, with and without corrections for PVEs, were performed on a voxel-by-voxel basis with a one-tailed fixed-effects analysis of covariance model adjusted for age. In addition, tests were performed with and without accounting for global perfusion. ResultsThe AD group showed significant regional hypoperfusion, compared with the CN group, in the right inferior parietal cortex extending into the bilateral posterior cingulate gyri (P<0.001), bilateral superior and middle frontal gyri (P<0.001), and left inferior parietal lobe (P=0.007). When PVEs from underlying cortical gray matter atrophy were accounted for, the AD group still showed hypoperfusion in the right inferior parietal lobe extending into the bilateral posterior cingulate gyri (P<0.001) and left (P=0.003) and right (P=0.012) middle frontal gyri. With a more liberal voxel-level threshold of P<0.01, the MCI group showed significant regional hypoperfusion relative to the CN group in the inferior right parietal lobe (P=0.046), similar to the region of greatest significance in the AD group. ConclusionArterial spin-labeling MR imaging showed regional hypoperfusion with AD, in brain regions similar to those seen in FDG PET and HMPAO SPECT studies of similar populations; this hypoperfusion persists after accounting for underlying cortical gray matter atrophy.

Effects of Alzheimer Disease on Fronto-parietal Brain N-acetyl Aspartate and Myo-Inositol Using Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging

Previous magnetic resonance (MR) spectroscopy studies of Alzheimer disease (AD) reporting reduced N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) and increased myo-Inositol (mI) used single voxel techniques, which have limited ability to assess the regional distribution of the metabolite abnormalities. The objective of this study was to determine the regional distribution of NAA and mI alterations in AD by using MR spectroscopic imaging. Fourteen patients with AD and 22 cognitively normal elderly were studied using structural MR imaging and MR spectroscopic imaging. Changes of NAA, mI, and various metabolite ratios were measured in frontal and parietal lobe gray matter (GM) and white matter. This study found: (1) when compared with cognitively normal subjects, AD patients had increased mI and mI/creatine (Cr) ratios primarily in parietal lobe GM, whereas frontal lobe GM and white matter were spared; (2) in the same region where mI was increased, AD patients had also decreased NAA and NAA/Cr ratios, replicating previous findings; (3) however, increased mI or mI/Cr ratios did not correlate with decreased NAA or NAA/Cr ratios; and (4) using mI/Cr and NAA/Cr together improved sensitivity and specificity to AD from control as compared with NAA/Cr alone. In conclusion, decreased NAA and increased mI in AD are primarily localized in parietal lobe GM regions. However, the NAA and mI changes are not correlated with each other, suggesting that they represent different processes that might help staging of AD.

Magnetic Resonance Approaches to Brain Aging and Alzheimer Disease-associated Neuropathology

The noninvasive, nonradioactive, quantitative nature of magnetic resonance techniques has propelled them to the forefront of neuroscience and neuropsychiatric research. In particular, recent advances have confirmed their enormous potential in patients with Alzheimer disease (AD). Structural and functional magnetic resonance (MR) imaging have demonstrated significant correlation with clinical outcomes and underlying pathology and are used increasingly in the AD clinic. This review will highlight the role of high-resolution structural MR imaging and functional magnetic resonance imaging in the identification of atrophic and hemodynamic changes in AD and their potential as diagnostic biomarkers and surrogates of therapeutic response. Advanced MR techniques based on diffusion, perfusion, and neurochemical abnormalities in the aging brain will be presented briefly. These newer techniques continue to expand our understanding of neuropathology in the aging brain and are likely to play an important clinical role in the future.

Network analysis of mild cognitive impairment

We present a network analysis of a cross-sectional study of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Network analysis, as opposed to univariate analysis, accounts for interactions among brain structures in explaining a clinical outcome. In this context, we analyze structural magnetic resonance (MR) data based on a Bayesian network representation of variables in the problem domain. The Bayesian network resulting from this analysis reveals complex, nonlinear multivariate associations among morphological changes in the left hippocampus and in the right thalamus and the presence of mild cognitive impairment. This Bayesian network could be used to predict the presence of mild cognitive impairment from structural MR scans.

Feature-based statistical analysis of structural MR data for automatic detection of focal cortical dysplastic lesions

This paper presents a method for fully automated detection and localization of Focal Cortical Dysplastic (FCD) lesions from anatomical magnetic resonance (MR) images of the human brain. Model-based tissue classification of the image under study was applied first such that a gray matter (GM) segmentation map is obtained of which we demonstrate that it also includes possible FCD lesions. Cortical thickness was estimated at each voxel using an appropriate distance transform applied to the binarized GM object and an FCD specific feature map was constructed by computing the ratio of cortical thickness over absolute image intensity gradient at each voxel. In absence of any prior anatomical hypothesis on the spatial location of the lesion, a statistical parameter map was constructed by evaluating the evidence for each gray matter voxel against the null hypothesis of no difference in the feature map of the patient versus similar maps obtained for a group of normal controls. Voxel clusters for which the null hypothesis was found to be improbable at optimally selected thresholds for cluster height and extent were reported as lesions. The method was applied to a surgical series of 17 FCD patient images that were compared against a group of 64 neurologically normal controls. The method correctly detected and located the FCD lesion in 9 out of 17 FCD cases (53%) using a threshold that minimized false positives and 12 of 17 (71%) using a threshold that allowed more false positive results. The detected lesions had a median volume of 7.2 cm 3 versus 2.9 cm 3 for the non-detected lesions. The detected lesions more often had an increased cortical thickness on T1 than the non-detected lesions ( P = 0.015, Fisher's exact test). Due to a high variance of the feature maps in the temporal lobes and insula, detection of FCD lesions in these regions appeared more difficult than in other brain regions with lower variance.

Pattern of Cerebral Hypoperfusion in Alzheimer Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment Measured with Arterial Spin-labeling MR Imaging: Initial Experience

To prospectively determine if pulsed arterial spin-labeling perfusion magnetic resonance (MR) imaging depicts regional cerebral hypoperfusion in subjects with Alzheimer disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), compared with perfusion in cognitively normal (CN) subjects, that is consistent with results of fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) and hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime (HMPAO) single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) studies of similar populations. Institutional review board approval and informed consent were obtained. Twenty subjects with AD (13 men, seven women; mean age, 72.9 years), 18 with MCI (nine men, nine women; mean age, 73.3 years), and 23 CN subjects (10 men, 13 women; mean age, 72.9 years) underwent arterial spin-labeling and volumetric T1-weighted structural MR imaging. Perfusion images were coregistered to structural images, corrected for partial volume effects (PVEs) with information from the structural image to determine tissue content of perfusion voxels, and normalized to a study-specific template. Analyses of perfusion differences between groups, with and without corrections for PVEs, were performed on a voxel-by-voxel basis with a one-tailed fixed-effects analysis of covariance model adjusted for age. In addition, tests were performed with and without accounting for global perfusion. The AD group showed significant regional hypoperfusion, compared with the CN group, in the right inferior parietal cortex extending into the bilateral posterior cingulate gyri (P <.001), bilateral superior and middle frontal gyri (P <.001), and left inferior parietal lobe (P=.007). When PVEs from underlying cortical gray matter atrophy were accounted for, the AD group still showed hypoperfusion in the right inferior parietal lobe extending into the bilateral posterior cingulate gyri (P <.001) and left (P=.003) and right (P=.012) middle frontal gyri. With a more liberal voxel-level threshold of P <.01, the MCI group showed significant regional hypoperfusion relative to the CN group in the inferior right parietal lobe (P=.046), similar to the region of greatest significance in the AD group. Arterial spin-labeling MR imaging showed regional hypoperfusion with AD, in brain regions similar to those seen in FDG PET and HMPAO SPECT studies of similar populations; this hypoperfusion persists after accounting for underlying cortical gray matter atrophy.

Smaller hippocampal volume in patients with recent-onset posttraumatic stress disorder

Previous structural magnetic resonance (MR) research in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has found smaller hippocampal volumes in patients compared with control subjects. These studies have mostly involved subjects who have had PTSD for a number of years, such as war veterans or adult survivors of childhood abuse. Patients with recent-onset PTSD have rarely been investigated. To our knowledge only one other study has investigated such a group. The aim of this study was to compare hippocampal volumes of patients with recent onset PTSD and nontrauma-exposed control subjects. Fifteen patients with PTSD, recruited from an accident and emergency department, were compared with 11, non-trauma-exposed, healthy control subjects. Patients underwent a structural MR scan soon after trauma (mean time = 158 +/- 41 days). Entire brain volumes, voxel size 1 x 1 x 1 mm, were acquired for each subject. Point counting and stereology were used to measure the hippocampal and amygdala volume of each subject. Right-sided hippocampal volume was significantly smaller in PTSD patients than control subjects after controlling for effects of whole brain volume and age. Neither left nor total hippocampal volume were significantly smaller in the PTSD group after correction. Whole brain volume was also found to be significantly smaller in patients. There were no differences in amygdala or white matter volumes between patients and control subjects. This result replicates previous findings of smaller hippocampal volumes in PTSD patients, but in an underinvestigated population, suggesting that either smaller hippocampal volume is a predisposing factor in the development of PTSD or that damage occurs within months of trauma, rather than a number of years. Either of these two hypotheses have significant implications for the treatment of PTSD. For instance, if it could be shown that screening for hippocampal volume may, in some cases, predict those likely to develop clinical PTSD.

P2-210 Regional MR brain volumes in the prediction of cognitive decline in ad

P2-210 Regional MR brain volumes in the prediction of cognitive decline in ad

Magnetic resonance studies of abnormalities in the normal appearing white matter and grey matter in multiple sclerosis.

Magnetic resonance (MR) techniques are of value in following the pathological process of multiple sclerosis in vivo. They are widely applied to monitor the disease natural history and its modification by treatment. However, serial studies of lesion measures have yielded generally disappointing correlations with the development of clinical disability. A potential explanation for this is the presence of abnormalities, beyond the visible lesions, in the normal appearing white matter (NAWM) and grey matter (NAGM). Quantitative structural MR techniques, including measures of magnetisation transfer, diffusion, relaxation times and spectroscopic metabolite concentrations, reveal that there are abnormalities in NAWM and NAGM. These are present from clinical onset and become more pronounced with clinical progression, increasing disability and increasing lesion load. Furthermore, functional MRI (fMRI) studies of motor and visual paradigms has identified a range of responses suggesting that cortical plasticity exists; such modified responses are seen in the earliest stages of disease and in the absence of visible lesions, but are more pronounced with disease progression and increasing lesion load and abnormality in the NAWM. Limited reproducibility and sensitivity to change can pose methodological limitations for MR studies of NAWM and NAGM, especially when follow up intervals are relatively short. Whilst existing quantitative MR measures from normal appearing tissues provide valuable information to understand the natural history and monitor treatment effects in MS, none of them fully or even predominantly accounts for the patient's functional state nor can be relied on as a definitive surrogate measure of treatment effect. Better resolution of the abnormalities is needed especially in grey matter where pathological foci are known to be abundant. Studies correlating structural MR and fMRI parameters with measures of function in well defined anatomical pathways should further elucidate the pathogenic role of abnormality in the normal appearing tissues. In future, new imaging modalities are needed that provide a more specific measure of histopathological and cellular aspects of the disease process in vivo.

Determination of Cerebrovascular Reactivity by Means of fMRI Signal Changes in Cerebral Microangiopathy: A Correlation with Morphological Abnormalities

Background and Purpose: A reduced cerebrovascular reactivity (CR) is a risk factor of cerebrovascular disease. In this study, we implemented a protocol to assess CR by means of functional MRI (fMRI) using hyperventilation. Subjects and Methods: In 5 patients with cerebral microangiopathy (CM/lacunar infarction and white matter degeneration), 6 healthy elderly subjects (age-matched control), and 6 young healthy subjects, the CR in response to hyperventilation was evaluated by fMRI using gradient echo-planar Imaging. The percentage signal change normalized by end-tidal CO₂ value was measured in various brain regions. Results: All subjects performed hyperventilation well without adverse reaction and significant gross motion. Patients with CM showed significant qualitative and quantitative differences (p < 0.05) as compared to controls. The volume of gray matter showing significant CR was significantly reduced in patients: by 40% in comparison to the age-matched elderly control group and by 60% when compared with the young controls. The CR impairment was most pronounced in the frontal cortices with a drastically reduced magnitude of the magnetic resonance (MR) signal change in the patients (–0.62 ± 0.2% in patients versus –2.0 ± 0.36% in age-matched controls, p < 0.0001). A strong relation was evident between the fMRI-based CR reduction in patients with CM and the individual severity of structural MR abnormalities (p = 0.002). Conclusion: This study demonstrates that fMRI-based signal changes in response to hyperventilation reliably reflect cerebral vasoreactivity. The protocol is feasible in healthy young and elderly controls and patients with CM. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the signal decrease in the T₂-weighted MR sequence and coregistration with individual anatomical data allow the generation of an individual cerebral vasoreactivity map. Future research will address the effect of CR reduction on neuropsychological parameters in patients with CM.

Neuropsychological deficits in a child with a left penetrating brain injury

This case study reports neuropsychological and structural magnetic resonance (MRI) studies of a 10-year-old girl with a left hemisphere lesion, caused by an underwater fishing harpoon penetrating her head when she was 6 years old. The patient showed a marked deficit in the acquisition of reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as an attentional deficit. Magnetic resonance images revealed left cortical lesions in the orbital region and the gyrus angularis, as well as in the caudate and putamen nuclei and longitudinal inferior fascicle. Neuropsychological assessment showed frontal and parietal lobe dysfunctions consistent with the lesional data. The structural data explain the neuropsychological impairment and suggest that, although the left lesion was early and relatively small, plasticity was incomplete.

Mild cognitive impairment in the elderly

The present review on mild cognitive impairment (MCI) concerns preclinical Alzheimer's disease (no cognitive impairment but neuropathological changes typical for Alzheimer's disease), subjective cognitive/memory complaints with and without verified neuropsychological deficit, and the validity of amnestic MCI. The following were shown to be predictors of Alzheimer's disease: measures of episodic memory; presence of the apolipoprotein E e4 allele; reduced cerebral temporo-parietal glucose metabolism and blood flow; neuronal loss in the entorhinal cortex, and in layer II and CA1 of the hippocampus; brain activation of the hippocampus through cognitive stress tests (as measured using structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging); and purely subjective cognitive impairment and features of age-associated cognitive decline. Furthermore, the distinction of MCI from both healthy and demented status, and the role of activities of daily living in MCI are emphasized. Early predictors and three stages (MCI spectrum disorder) in the development of Alzheimer's disease are discussed: asymptomatic Alzheimer's disease (including preclinical Alzheimer's disease), purely subjective cognitive complaints, and objective evidence of MCI.

MR image-based measurement of rates of change in volumes of brain structures. Part I: method and validation

A detailed analysis procedure is described for evaluating rates of volumetric change in brain structures based on structural magnetic resonance (MR) images. In this procedure, a series of image processing tools have been employed to address the problems encountered in measuring rates of change based on structural MR images. These tools include an algorithm for intensity non-uniformity correction, a robust algorithm for three-dimensional image registration with sub-voxel precision and an algorithm for brain tissue segmentation. However, a unique feature in the procedure is the use of a fractional volume model that has been developed to provide a quantitative measure for the partial volume effect. With this model, the fractional constituent tissue volumes are evaluated for voxels at the tissue boundary that manifest partial volume effect, thus allowing tissue boundaries be defined at a sub-voxel level and in an automated fashion. Validation studies are presented on key algorithms including segmentation and registration. An overall assessment of the method is provided through the evaluation of the rates of brain atrophy in a group of normal elderly subjects for which the rate of brain atrophy due to normal aging is predictably small. An application of the method is given in Part II where the rates of brain atrophy in various brain regions are studied in relation to normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease.

Correlation of white matter diffusivity and anisotropy with age during childhood and adolescence: a cross-sectional diffusion-tensor MR imaging study.

To evaluate differences in white matter diffusion properties as a function of age in healthy children and adolescents. Echo-planar diffusion-tensor magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was performed in 33 healthy subjects aged 5-18 years who were recruited from a functional imaging study of normal language development. Results of neurologic, psychologic, and structural MR imaging examinations were within the normal range for all subjects. The trace of the apparent diffusion coefficient and fractional anisotropy in white matter were correlated as a function of age by using Spearman rank correlation. Statistically significant negative correlation of the trace of the apparent diffusion coefficient with age was found throughout the white matter. Significant positive correlation of fractional anisotropy with age was found in the internal capsule, corticospinal tract, left arcuate fasciculus, and right inferior longitudinal fasciculus. Diffusion-tensor MR imaging results indicate that white matter maturation assessed at different ages involves increases in both white matter density and organization during childhood and adolescence. The trace of the apparent diffusion coefficient and fractional anisotropy may reflect different physiologic processes in healthy children and adolescents.

Characterization of Cerebral Small Vessel Disease by Proton Spectroscopy and Morphological Magnetic Resonance

This study sought to investigate whether clinical and neuropsychological impairment in cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) can be evaluated by proton spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) and structural magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Sixteen patients with CSVD and 15 healthy age-matched controls participated in the study. In addition to spectroscopic and structural MR examination all patients underwent a comprehensive clinical and neuropsychological investigation. Significant differences in between patients and controls were revealed by ¹H-MRS in the parietal white matter: decreased metabolic ratios of N-acetyl aspartate to choline (NAA/Cho; patients: 1.37 ± 0.17, control: 1.72 ± 0.25, p < 0.001) and of N-acetyl aspartate to creatin (NAA/Cr; patients: 1.41 ± 0.15, control: 1.66 ± 0.2, p < 0.01) indicated a pathological state. Evaluation of spectroscopic and neuropsychological data revealed a close relation between attentional impairment, i.e. delayed cerebral transmission time and decreased NAA/Cho and NAA/Cr (r = 0.62, p = 0.014). In sum, ¹H-MRS allowed a clear discrimination between patients with CSVD and age-matched normal controls. Moreover, comparisons of ¹H-MRS and neuropsychological data suggested that NAA metabolic levels, and particularly the delay in cerebral transmission time, could be potential predictors of the severeness of attentional impairment.

Structural MRI as a tool for the study of neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disorders.

High-resolution magnetic resonance (MR) imaging affords an unprecedented opportunity to study the severity and distribution of neurodegenerative changes in the human brain. By selecting specific MR sequence parameters (i.e., TE and TR), different MR signals can be received from different tissue types, such as gray and white matter. Through optimization of the contrast between different tissue types, the surfaces and internal structures of brain structures of special interest can be visualized and quantitated. Metrics such as two-dimensional areas, three-dimensional volumes, and three-dimensional shape characteristics have proven to be highly useful for quantitating the effects of toxins on the human brain. Among toxins, the effects of alcohol on the human brain have been most intensively studied using structural MR imaging. Volume losses in the cerebral cortex and other brain regions of interest have been carefully quantitated. However, because exposure to alcohol is almost always repeated over many years, the effects of normal aging must be carefully considered when making comparisons between diseased and healthy populations. In contrast to the literature on alcohol, structural MR imaging has been relatively underutilized in the study of drugs and other chemicals such as MPTP and other drugs of abuse that are toxic to special populations of neurons. However, as the resolution of structural MR continues to improve, the structural characteristics of such neuron populations will be visualized and quantitated, and successful use of structural MR imaging for the study of such toxins will become possible.

Magnetic resonance techniques in the evaluation of the perinatal brain: recent advances and future directions

Magnetic resonance (MR) techniques are attractive for use in the developing brain because of their resolving power and their relative noninvasiveness. Their ability to provide detailed structural as well as metabolic and functional information without the use of ionizing radiation is unique. Conventional MR Imaging has widely proven its potential for identifying normal and pathologic brain morphology. Functional MR imaging such as diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and perfusion and blood-oxygenation-dependent BOLD imaging are newer imaging methods providing insights into brain physiology. This review will focus on the application of different MR techniques including the conventional structural MR imaging techniques and the more advanced MR techniques, such as the quantitative morphometric MR methods, the diffusion weighted MR techniques, the functional MR techniques and MR spectroscopy in the study of the fetal and newborn brain.