Strict Protected Areas Research Articles

What Will the Future Bring? – Socio-Economic Challenges to Herder Households in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area in Mongolia

AbstractNomadic pastoralism is still practiced by around one-third of the Mongolian population. Recent socio-economic constraints have challenged pastoral livelihoods and rising livestock numbers threaten overall rangeland health and biodiversity conservation. In the Mongolian Gobi, herder households fully depend on livestock production but little is known about their livelihood trends and potential compatibility with protected area goals. We combined interview data in the Great Gobi B strictly protected area (SPA) with secondary data on regional and national herder households to determine the importance of social networks, willingness to continue a herding lifestyle, and degree of involvement in protected area (PA) management. Our descriptive data confirm that herding is no longer centred on a subsistence lifestyle but rather around cashmere production. Contrary to sustainability goals, especially in protected areas, herder households continue to increase livestock numbers in response to high expenditures in the economic reality of a market economy. We conclude that herders in the Great Gobi B SPA are reaching neither socio-economically nor ecologically sustainable livestock numbers which challenge herders’ livelihoods and PA management alike. We recommend enhancing communication between the PA management and the herding community and increasing participatory conservation activities. National strategies are needed to resolve the current dilemma of increasing livestock numbers to meet livelihood demands and the growing threat to rangeland health.

Rethinking Global Hotspots for Threatened Terrestrial Vertebrates

ABSTRACTAimWe aimed to delimit hotspots for terrestrial threatened vertebrate species (HTV) through novel macroecological and statistical approaches.LocationGlobal.Time PeriodPresent day (1979–2024).Major Taxa StudiedTerrestrial threatened vertebrate species (n = 7188).MethodsIn comparison with previous delimitations of hotspots, we: (i) considered richness and degree of endemism together through a robust statistical framework; (ii) focused on a priority set of species extremely important in terms of conservation, based on IUCN threat status; and (iii) used a fine spatial scale which allowed us to define key sub‐areas within classic hotspots. We also assessed the degree of protection and human impact within the proposed HTV.ResultsWe propose 20 global hotspots for threatened terrestrial vertebrates. In comparison with classic hotspots, proposed HTV have a significantly more limited distribution, covering ~27% of classic hotspots' area. In addition, a large proportion of HTV (~27%) does not match with classic hotspots. The overlap between HTV and protected areas (PAs) is low (< 11%), and extremely low when only strict protected areas are considered (< 1.5%). Also, a great degree of HTV exhibits high to extreme levels of human modification. On average, the velocity of climate change within HTV has been low, but attention must be given to notable areas presenting medium to high velocities. Interestingly, the geographical locations of highly endemic and rich areas considerably varied across individual vertebrate taxa. Yet, a high proportion of these priority areas for individual taxa are covered by the proposed HTV (74%–89%).Main ConclusionsOur findings present key areas of the world for threatened terrestrial vertebrate species, many of these at high risk due to an interplay among low levels of protection, extreme levels of human modification and climate change. The proposed HTV are highly relevant in terms of decision‐making, serving as a guide for allocating the limited conservation resources.

Natural resources used in the traditional medicine of the Marinaú community, Caxiuanã forest, Brazil.

The diversity of Conservation Units in Brazil, ranging from Strict Protection areas like National Parks to Sustainable Use areas such as National Forests, supports the coexistence of human populations with extensive traditional knowledge of local natural resources. This traditional and local knowledge plays a crucial role in their subsistence and has significant potential to contribute to bioprospecting initiatives, as well as to enhance research and strategies for biological conservation. The São Sebastião de Marinaú community, situated within the Caxiuanã National Forest, offers valuable opportunities for ethnobiological studies. The field study was carried out with 48 informants from the São Sebastião de Marinaú Community, Caxiuanã National Forest (CNF), Brazil, a Sustainable Use Conservation Unit. It involved participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and guided tours. Indices of Use Value (UV), Fidelity Level (FL), and Consensus Factor (ICF) indicated plant species with therapeutic potential. A total of 944 uses associated with 154 plants and 21 animals were reported. Statistical tests pointed out that factors such as gender and age are not determinants in the richness of known plants among the residents. The plants are distributed among 59 botanical families and 126 genera. They predominantly use species native to Brazil (69%), among which 47 are endemic to the Amazon. The medicines are prepared mainly by decoction of leaves and bark. According to UV, veronica (Dalbergia monetaria L.f.) was the most important. The animals used are all vertebrates, and paca (Cuniculus paca Linnaeus, 1766,) was the most cited. Bile and lard are the parts most used in the recipes. They mentioned 116 diseases, especially those of the digestive system. The ceruzeiro (Allantoma lineata (Mart. ex O.Berg) Miers) had a high consensus of local use, and no additional studies on this species exist. This study underscores the vital role of traditional communities in sustainable conservation units, as their involvement is crucial for preserving plant and animal species essential to local traditional medicine. Such research also promotes the recognition of non-timber products as valuable raw materials with potential applications in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Additionally, mapping the occurrence and use of species in vulnerable conditions aids in developing effective conservation strategies for these resources.

Socio-economic and environmental trade-offs in Amazonian protected areas and Indigenous territories revealed by assessing competing land uses.

Protected area (PA) assessments rarely evaluate socio-economic and environmental impacts relative to competing land uses, limiting understanding of socio-environmental trade-offs from efforts to protect 30% of the globe by 2030. Here we assess deforestation and poverty outcomes (fiscal income, income inequality, sanitation and literacy) between 2000 and 2010 of strict PAs (SPAs), sustainable-use PAs (SUPAs) and Indigenous territories (ITs) compared with different land uses (agriculture and mining concessions) across ~5,500 census tracts in the Brazilian Legal Amazon. ITs reduced deforestation relative to all alternative land uses (48-83%) but had smaller socio-economic benefits compared with other protection types and land uses (18-36% depending on outcome), indicating that Indigenous communities experience socio-economic trade-offs. By contrast, SUPAs, and potentially SPAs, did not reduce deforestation relative to small-scale agriculture (landholdings <10 ha) but did so relative to larger agricultural landholdings (70-82%). Critically, these reductions in deforestation frequently occurred without negative socio-economic outcomes. By contrast, ITs and SUPAs protected against deforestation from mining, but at the cost of smaller improvements in income and inequality. Our results suggest that although PAs in the Brazilian Legal Amazon substantially reduced deforestation without compromising local socio-economic development, efforts to secure Indigenous rights need additional interventions to ensure these communities are not further disadvantaged.

EU2030 biodiversity strategy: Unveiling gaps in the coverage of ecoregions and threatened species within the strictly protected areas of Italy

About 19 % of the Italian territory is covered by protected areas (PAs), 5.1 % of which fall in IUCN categories Ia and II, which can be considered strictly protected areas (StPAs). The 2030 EU Biodiversity Strategy sets a target of 30 % coverage for PAs (of which 10 % should be StPAs). We assessed the area coverage of StPAs, for the territory of Italy, with respect to biogeographical regions, ecoregions, elevation range, habitats, and the distribution of species threatened with extinction according to the IUCN Red List (Vulnerable, VU; Endangered, EN; or Critically Endangered, CR). We found that most of the StPAs are located in the Mediterranean biogeographical region, followed by the Alpine and Continental regions, and that the spatial distribution of such protected areas is biased towards higher elevation. Moreover, we found that three of the fourteen terrestrial ecoregions of Italy are not protected at all by StPAs (i.e., Illyrian, Ligurian-Provencal, and Central-Adriatic), while the Po Plain and the Sicilia Sections are only marginally protected. Moreover, nine habitats are not covered by any StPAs including one priority habitat (Inland salt meadows). Finally, we found unprotected species among freshwater fish (21), amphibians (3 VU, 3 CR), reptiles (1 CR), birds (2 NE), mammals (1 VU), and plants (20 VU, 14 EN, 21 CR). Our findings suggest that the current amount and spatial distribution of StPAs of Italy are far from the targets of the EU Biodiversity Strategy and needs improvements.

Proximity and size of protected areas in Asian borderlands enable transboundary conservation

Asia has over 80% of the Earth’s border hotspots for threatened transboundary wildlife, yet only limited research has been done on the distribution of protected areas across international borders in the continent. To address this gap, we conducted a spatial analysis of protected areas across 42 Asian countries. Our study aimed to understand the distribution, proximity, and land-use changes within border protected areas. Two cases were examined, evaluating the spatial relationships at different buffer distances from international borders. Our findings revealed that Asian countries have larger protected areas in borderlands, particularly up to 50 km from borders, as compared to regions further away from the border. Importantly, the median distance between protected areas across international borders is nearly three times shorter than those within the same country. However, the rate of change in natural habitats within protected areas between 2001 and 2019 showed no correlation with their distance from the border. The proximity of protected areas across Asian borders offers opportunities for enhancing connectivity. A larger extent of multi-use protected areas (IUCN1-6+) near borders compared to strict protected areas (IUCN1-4) can facilitate the engagement of communities, which are crucial in transboundary conservation initiatives. Our results can help Asian countries as they work toward their commitments as part of the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework to protect at least 30% of the Earth’s surface area by 2030.

The gap between policy and practice for human rights in conservation: a case study in Papua Province, Indonesia

AbstractThe adverse effects that conservation can have on Indigenous Peoples and local communities have been known for decades. In recognition, governments and conservation organizations have adopted joint statements of intent and rolled out various individual measures to safeguard human rights. Nevertheless, a gap remains between policy and practice, as evidenced by numerous recent examples of human rights infringements because of the (in)actions of conservation. We present ethnographic research with people living adjacent to Pegunungan Cyclops, an IUCN category I(a) strict protected area in Papua Province, Indonesia, aiming to understand their experiences of conservation and provide some nuance regarding the gap between policy and practice in human rights and conservation. We uncovered feelings of injustice, discontent, confusion, an overall lack of consultation between local inhabitants and park managers and decades of contradictory policies and projects characterized by implementation problems stemming from scant resources. We also show how national struggles over rights and recognition are conflated and intertwined with local ones and how national and provincial policies can alter governance regimes, tenure arrangements and power relations locally. Despite the issues, our informants also recalled favourably instances in which partnerships between local inhabitants and other actors were well received because they were implemented through detailed consultation, producing management actions that better aligned with traditional practices. For people in the Cyclops Mountains today, the emerging avenues provided by the social forestry programme in Indonesia could be the most beneficial way to secure greater access to their lands, and conservationists can play a role in supporting this process.

Effects of human-induced habitat changes on site-use patterns in large Amazonian Forest mammals

The Amazon is one of the most diverse biomes around the globe, currently threatened by economic and industrial development and climate change. Large mammals are keystone species, playing an important role in ecosystem structure and function as ecological engineers, while being highly susceptible to deforestation, habitat degradation, and human exploitation. Using a unifying hierarchical Bayesian spatial approach, we examine the site-use patterns of four large Amazonian Forest mammals and their relationships to anthropogenic factors at a biome-wide scale. Our results showed that species’ patterns of site use are correlated with human induced habitat changes, and that this correlation is species-specific. The white-lipped peccary shows highest site-use estimates within strict protected areas, affected by proximity to urban areas and benefiting from indigenous territories, the tapir responding slightly to proximity to burned forested areas, while the giant armadillo and the jaguar were primarily affected by vegetation cover loss; disturbances related to the colonization of the Amazon. Our findings contribute to the understanding of how human-induced environmental changes influence the site-use patterns of these four large mammals, and inform future conservation and land use planning. Transboundary conservation efforts, empowering and integrating native (indigenous and non-indigenous) communities in land governance schemes, involving the private sector and securing the commitment of developed countries are important paths for the protection and sustainability of the globally-crucial Amazon rainforest.

Spotting what's important: Priority areas, connectivity, and conservation of the Northern Tiger Cat (Leopardus tigrinus) in Colombia.

Leopardus tigrinus is among the least known carnivore species in the Neotropics, including considerable taxonomic uncertainty. Here we model the distribution, connectivity and overlap with existing conservation areas for the species in Colombia. Using a Species Distribution Modeling approach, we estimated current potential range of the species in Colombia and identified potential habitat blocks remaining in the country. In addition, we designed a connectivity network across the available cores, using a circuit theory approach, to evaluate habitat linkage. Finally, we defined a prioritization scheme for the remaining habitat cores and assessed the level of coverage of protected areas for the country. L. tigrinus is potentially present across the three Andean branches of Colombia, with still considerable continuous habitat cores, mostly located on the eastern and central Andean ranges. Most habitat cores are theoretically connected, but nearly 15% are isolated. Priority areas were located across the eastern and central ranges, but with very significant and promising cores in the northern eastern and western ranges. Current level of protection indicates nearly 30% of the range is "protected", but only about 25% is under national strict protected areas. Evolution of this coverage showed some periods of significant increase but interestingly the number of cores grew at a faster rate than overall proportion protected, likely indicating numerous discontinuous fragments, and not contiguous functional landscapes. This represents the most updated assessment of the distribution and conservation status for the species in Colombia, and indicates the numerous conservation opportunities, especially in most populated areas of the country. We found unique business environmental passive's opportunities, including compensation and development potential, which are becoming more available in the country.

Edges as hotspots and drivers of forest cover change in a tropical landscape

Forest cover changes are influenced by socioeconomic and biophysical dynamics. However, the relative importance of both social and biophysical factors to forest loss and gain remains in debate. Previous research has focused mainly in identifying determinants of deforestation, while less is known regarding forest regrowth, especially in tropical forests. Here we investigated the spatial pattern and determinants of forest cover changes within a landscape which is representative of the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions found in the Atlantic Forest, and also presents an exceptional conservation value within this global biodiversity hotspot. Events of deforestation and regrowth were identified by comparing land cover maps from aerial images taken in 1975 and 2010. We controlled the spatial autocorrelation among events and used a machine learning algorithm and a selection model approach to build linear models explaining forest loss and gain. Main determinants of both forest loss and gain were biophysical factors, although some of they may also reflect socioeconomic underlying processes. Distance from Strictly Protected Areas (SPAs) was the single socioeconomic determinant important to forest change, in loss events. Both deforestation and forest regrowth were strongly associated with forest edges. Deforestation occurred more intensively on concave or flat areas, low solar radiation conditions, near forests, and far from SPAs. Diversely, forest regrowth occurred mostly in high slopes, low elevation areas, high solar radiation and near to forest edges. Our findings reinforce the important role of topography and protected area on forest change, and highlight edge zones are “hotspots” of forest cover dynamics. .

Strict laws fail to deter illegal trade of China’s largest and most endangered freshwater turtle

In May 2021, a number of people were arrested for the illegal poaching and trade of one of the most endangered freshwater turtle species in China. The large female Pelochelys cantorii individual was poached from a strict protected area, sold, and was publicly advertised on social media despite being a Class I protected species (no trade allowed) for over 30 years and in a country with one of the strictest penalties for IWT worldwide. We discuss and call for more conservation efforts to prevent the illegal poaching and trade of this threatened species. We argue that unless China meets the urgent conservation needs of this iconic species, the impending extinction of this species cannot be reversed.

The Importance of Socio-economic Development to Sustainable Natural Resources Management in Rural Areas: A Case Study of Sustainable Livelihoods and Forest Management in Xuan Nha Nature Reserve in Northwestern Vietnam

Sustainable forest management is facing threats such as deforestation, forest degradation, and biodiversity loss due to socio-economic conditions, a weak governance capacity, and lack of public participation. In Xuan Nha Nature Reserve, about 50% of the total population are living below the poverty level and their livelihoods are depending on forest. The community’s activities have been creating pressures on the forest by reducing the forest area, increasing forest land degradation, and through illegal logging. The objectives of the study were to (i) identify sustainable livelihood options; (ii) the most suitable livelihood practices with the purpose of reducing poverty for local communities and their dependency on forest resources; and (iii) recommend suitable policies to reduce the conflict between socio-economic development and forest management. In order to achieve these objectives, we used the LIFE (livelihood, income, forest condition, and equity); the Sustainable Livelihood Framework; and the Advocacy Coalition Framework. The results showed that fruit orchards and beekeeping were two suitable livelihood options for the buffer areas since there were more convenient assets such as roads, markets, and human knowledge, while fruit orchards and local pig farming were suggested for the ERA (ecological restoration area) and SPA (strictly protected area) to solve the problem of land degradation and maintain the traditional habits of the local community. Regarding policy changes, support for livelihood practices and improvement of the community’s and authorities’ awareness on forest protection was necessary for all the sub-areas for reducing poverty and the pressures on forest resources of the community.

Community Managed Protected Areas Conserve Aboveground Carbon Stocks: Implications for REDD+

Protected Areas (PAs) represent a broad spectrum of outcomes and governance systems. Among PAs, Community Managed PAs have emerged from communities that are not exclusively indigenous and have developed social organizations to acquire land rights, participate in forest governance, and in some cases, engage in REDD+. However, regardless of the scale or counterfactual, there is no clear consensus about Community Managed PAs’ effectiveness in forest conservation and climate change mitigation. Furthermore, previous studies have been devoted to estimating PAs’ effects on deforestation before REDD+ projects began to operate. Based on Community Concessions in Petén (Guatemala) and Extractive Reserves in Acre (Brazil), we analyzed Community Managed PAs’ temporal and spatial effects on carbon stocks and avoided emissions relative to unprotected lands, other Sustainable Use PAs (IUCN V-VI), and Strict PAs (I-IV). We used carbon density maps, matching methods, geographic discontinuity designs, and sensitivity analysis between 2003 and 2015. After controlling for the influence of market access and agriculture suitability, our analysis shows that Community Managed PAs were more effective than Other Lands (i.e., unprotected) and Sustainable Use PAs, and at least as effective as Strict PAs, in preserving carbon stocks and avoiding emissions. For instance, relative to Other Lands between 2011 and 2015, Community Managed PAs resulted in net avoided emissions of 4.6 tCO2-eq/ha in Petén (Guatemala) and 2.15 tCO2-eq/ha in Acre (Brazil). While these net avoided emissions were lower than in previous years, they seem to be driven by a reduction in carbon emissions outside Community Managed PAs. Spatially, the boundaries of Community Managed PAs varied across jurisdictions. For example, the boundaries of Acre’s Community Managed PAs’ have become less effective in avoiding emissions, which translates into reduced effects on conserving carbon stocks. Our results highlight the need to assess temporal effects to exhibit jurisdiction-wide land-use dynamics and spatial effects to identify local land-use pressures emerging inside or around the boundaries of PAs. Our analysis also shows that decentralized governance in Community Managed PAs may contribute to climate change mitigation through REDD+ and forest conservation targets.

Protected areas and the neglected contribution of Indigenous Peoples and local communities: Struggles for environmental justice in the Caatinga dry forest

Abstract Despite evidence about the contribution of Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs) to conservation, prevailing strategies still seek their separation from nature, often triggering conflicts. Current pledges to expand global protected area coverage suggest a need for the critical analysis of governance quality and the way conservation interacts with the well‐being of IPLCs. We present the case of Catimbau National Park in the Caatinga dry forest of northeast Brazil, where we explored connections between the well‐being of IPLCs and landscape through different values, practices and institutions, and perceptions of how environmentally just the park's governance has been. The well‐being of IPLCs is inextricably connected with the Caatinga landscape, through multiple place‐based relational values that, although differing between Indigenous and non‐indigenous inhabitants, have in both cases developed over generations. Although often framed as degraders, IPLCs exhibit a strong motivation to conserve, reflected through local institutions including forest gardens, sustainable use regulations, restoration activities and prevention of external encroachment. The strict form of protected area implemented at Catimbau, instead of a locally led or sustainable use reserve, explicitly targeted the resettlement of IPLCs and livelihood reorientation. These imposed objectives have clashed with a way of life in this peopled landscape and precluded local stewardship on a larger scale. Long‐term conflict arose through governance deficiencies which sparked multidimensional injustices. These include not only the misrecognition of local values and customary institutions but also the lack of procedures for consent or decision‐making influence, plus distributional harms including tenure insecurity and denied development assistance. Development and conservation strategies must reject narratives about poor, resource‐dependent rural communities and embrace the opportunities that local knowledge and institutions bring for effective conservation. As conservation efforts are expanded post‐2020, the people of the Caatinga and beyond must be recognised as embedded and a key part of any solution. In strict protected areas like Catimbau, where social conflict constrains their ability to function, seeking legal changes in governance type can be onerous. However, we describe other local‐level actions to build relationships and agency that may foster transitions towards better governance, and just treatment of IPLCs. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Early warning sign of forest loss in protected areas

As humanity is facing the double challenge of species extinctions and climate change, designating parts of forests as protected areas is a key conservation strategy.1-4 Protected areas, encompassing 14.9% of the Earth's land surface and 19% of global forests, can prevent forest loss but do not do so perfectly everywhere.5-12 The reasons why protection only works in some areas are difficult to generalize: older and newer parks, protected areas with higher and lower suitability for agriculture, and more and less strict protection can be more effective at preventing forest loss than their counterparts.6,8,9,12-16 Yet predicting future forest loss within protected areas is crucial to proactive conservation. Here, we identify an early warning sign of subsequent forest loss, based on forest loss patterns in strict protected areas and their surrounding landscape worldwide, from 2000 to 2018.17,18 We found that a low level in the absolute forest cover immediately outside of a protected area signals a high risk of future forest loss inside the protected area itself. When the amount of forest left outside drops to <20%, the protected area is likely to experience rates of forest loss matching those in the wider landscape, regardless of its protection status (e.g., 5% loss outside will be matched by 5% loss inside). This knowledge could be used to direct funding to protected areas threatened by imminent forest loss, helping to proactively bolster protection to prevent forest loss, especially in countries where detailed information is lacking.

Biodiversity protection in the 21st century needs intact habitat and protection from overexploitation whether inside or outside parks

Biodiversity protection in the 21st century needs intact habitat and protection from overexploitation whether inside or outside parks

Global patterns and potential drivers of human settlements within protected areas

Protected areas (PAs) represent one of our most important conservation strategies for halting biodiversity loss. The number of PAs has increased remarkably over the last few decades. Yet, biodiversity is still being lost at alarming rates, even within many of those PAs. Understanding the factors that influence the levels of human pressure within PAs remains a key objective. In this study, we examined the factors associated with the human settlements’ levels within the world’s PAs. Using the random forests technique, an ensemble machine learning method, and a vast number of PAs (81 100–137 523), we assessed the importance of nine factors, including the PAs’ management objective as reflected by their International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Category. The IUCN classifies PAs into six categories ranging from strict nature reserves to areas in which multiple human uses are permitted. The prevalent but untested assumption is that human settlements’ levels within PAs vary according to their management objective, with less strict PAs having higher levels. Our results, however, show that the differences between the categories were for the most part minor. The most important predictor of human settlements was accessibility measured as the time required to reach the PA from the nearest major city. These findings were consistent across all of the world’s subregions. Other less important factors included the extent of croplands within PAs, elevation, and slope. Our findings suggest that PAs nearer urban centers tend to have higher human settlements’ levels regardless of their other characteristics, such as management objective and year of establishment. Managing those PAs successfully will be necessary to achieve the post-2020 global biodiversity targets and will require conservation strategies that acknowledge and engage the local communities.

Landscape Connectivity Analysis and Optimization of Qianjiangyuan National Park, Zhejiang Province, China

As natural ecosystems in most parts of the world come under increasing human influence, fragmentation is becoming the major driving factor of the global biodiversity crisis. Therefore, connectivity between habitat patches is becoming even more important. China began building national parks with the primary purpose of protecting nationally representative natural ecosystems and maintaining the integrity of their structure, processes and functions. Research is necessary to improve the internal connectivity of national parks and to propose suggestions for existing functional zoning and biological corridors. In this study, Qianjiangyuan National Park was selected as an example park, and landscape fragmentation was evaluated exponentially and simulated visually. The habitat characteristics of protected species in the region, morphological spatial pattern analysis and the delta of the probability of connectivity were used together to identify key habitat patches and their importance levels in the study area. Potential habitat corridors in the region were then obtained using least-cost path analysis and gravity modeling methods based on the distribution of key habitat and the migration costs of target species. The results of this study show that the disturbed landscape of the study area is dominated by tea plantations and drylands, with central roads being an important factor affecting the overall landscape connectivity. In terms of the distribution of key habitat patches, the mountains have a high value. In terms of area, their size is not directly proportional to their importance for maintaining landscape connectivity in the region, but large area patches are generally of higher importance. In terms of distance, key habitats that are closer to each other have a stronger correlation and a greater possibility for species migration. Combined with the functional zoning of Qianjiangyuan National Park, the setting of strictly protected areas and recreational areas is reasonable, and traditional use areas and ecological conservation areas could be appropriately adjusted according to the distribution of key habitats. The important corridor in the middle of the ecological conservation area is crucial for the overall connectivity of the national park, and the connectivity between strict protected areas will depend on successful protection of the ecological conservation area.

Are natural disturbances represented in strictly protected areas in Germany?

Natural disturbances are largely suppressed in Central European landscapes due to economic and human safety concerns. European goals to increase the extent of secondary wilderness areas have the potential to support the restoration of threatened habitats associated with natural disturbances. Germany is among the Central European countries with the most advanced wilderness goals. This study aimed to investigate whether habitat types shaped by natural disturbances are mostly red-listed as threatened and require special consideration within systematic conservation planning (SCP). First, we reviewed literature and the German Red List of Threatened Habitat Types to identify the conservation status of habitat types associated with three natural abiotic disturbance types in Germany: floods, forest fires and landslides. Second, we mapped the potential area coverage of these disturbance types and identified gaps in the current network of strictly protected areas (PA) to inform SCP. Fifty-two per cent of the habitat types associated with the three disturbance types floods, forest fires and landslides were listed as “critically endangered” (n = 1) or “endangered to critically endangered” (n = 9). The potential area for river dynamics accounted for 4.3% of German terrestrial territory, areas potentially subject to forest fires accounted for 0.9% and areas with a very high susceptibility to landslides for 1.1%. Areas potentially subject to forest fires (0.15% strict PA coverage) and river dynamics (0.81%) were underrepresented in German National Parks and the core zones of Biosphere Reserve, whereas strict PA coverage of areas with a very high susceptibility to landslides was higher (6.8%). European and German wilderness goals can support the restoration of threatened habitat types associated with natural disturbances if spatial information on those areas is integrated into SCP concepts. Yet, sophisticated management regimes will be required to resolve conflicts between wilderness areas subject to natural disturbances and the surrounding cultural landscape and infrastructure.

Strict protected areas are essential for the conservation of larger and threatened mammals in a priority region of the Brazilian Cerrado

Assessing protected area (PA) effectiveness is key to ensure the objectives of habitat protection are being achieved. There is strong evidence that legal protection reduces loss of natural vegetation, but biodiversity loss can still happen without significant changes in vegetation cover. Here we use data from a specifically designed camera trap survey to conduct a counterfactual assessment of PA effectiveness at safeguarding local biodiversity in the Brazilian Cerrado. We surveyed the mammal community in 517 locations at the Sertão Veredas-Peruaçu mosaic, distributed across five strict PAs (264 survey sites in five arrays) and two multiple-use PAs with low management levels (253 survey sites in four arrays). We adopted a multi-species occupancy framework to analyse our dataset while also controlling for confounding factors not directly related to protection. Of the 21 species assessed, nine had higher occupancy in strict PAs, one had higher occupancy in multiple-use PAs, and ten did not respond to protection level. Site species richness was nearly twice as large in areas under stricter protection, with even greater differences for species richness of globally threatened and larger mammals (>15 kg). Overall we demonstrated that the strict PAs surveyed support higher mammal diversity than similar areas under less restrictive management, with a particular strong effect on larger and threatened species. Given that strict PAs cover only 3% of the Cerrado, our results suggest that expanding the area under strict protection is likely to benefit iconic species of the Brazilian savanna, such as the maned wolf and giant anteater.