Stream Water Residence Times Research Articles

Does streambed heterogeneity matter for hyporheic residence time distribution in sand-bedded streams?

Stream water residence times within streambed sediments are key values to quantify hyporheic processes including sediment thermal regime, solute transient storage, dilution rates and biogeochemical transformations, such as those controlling degassing nitrous oxide. Heterogeneity of the streambed sediment hydraulic properties has been shown to be potentially an important factor to characterize hyporheic processes. Here, we quantify the importance of streambed heterogeneity on residence times of dune-like bedform induced hyporheic fluxes at the bedform and reach scales. We show that heterogeneity has a net effect of compression of the hyporheic zone (HZ) toward the streambed, changing HZ volume from the homogenous case and thus inducing remarkable differences in the flow field with respect to the homogeneous case. We unravel the physical conditions for which the commonly used homogenous field assumption is applicable for quantifying hyporheic processes thus explaining why predictive measures based on a characteristic residence time, like the Damköhler number, are robust in heterogeneous sand bedded streams.

Flowpaths, source water contributions and water residence times in a Mexican tropical dry forest catchment

Summary Runoff in forested tropical catchments has been frequently described in the literature as dominated by the rapid translation of rainfall to runoff through surface and shallow subsurface pathways. However, studies examining runoff generation in tropical catchments with highly permeable soils have received little attention, particularly in tropical dry forests. We present a study focused on identifying the dominant flowpaths, water sources and stream water residence times in a tropical dry forest catchment near the Pacific coast of central Mexico. During the wet season, pre-event water contributions to stormflow ranged from 72% to 97%, with the concentrations of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium closely coupling the geochemistry of baseflow and groundwater from the narrow riparian/near-stream zone. Baseflow from the intermittent stream showed a strongly damped isotopic signature and a mean baseflow residence time of 52–110 days was estimated. These findings all suggest that instead of the surface and near-surface subsurface lateral pathways observed over many tropical catchments, runoff is generated through vertical flow processes and the displacement and discharge of stored water from the saturated zone. As the wet season progressed, contributions from the saturated zone persisted; however, the stormflow and baseflow geochemistry suggests that the contributing area of the catchment increased. Our results show that during the early part of the wet season, runoff originated primarily from the headwater portion of the catchment. As the wet season progressed and catchment wetness increased, connectivity among sub-basin was improved, resulting in runoff contributions from across the entire catchment.

Low Transient Storage and Uptake Efficiencies in Seven Agricultural Streams: Implications for Nutrient Demand

We used mass load budgets, transient storage modeling, and nutrient spiraling metrics to characterize nitrate (NO), ammonium (NH), and inorganic phosphorus (SRP) demand in seven agricultural streams across the United States and to identify in-stream services that may control these conditions. Retention of one or all nutrients was observed in all but one stream, but demand for all nutrients was low relative to the mass in transport. Transient storage metrics (/, , , and ) correlated with NO retention but not NH or SRP retention, suggesting in-stream services associated with transient storage and stream water residence time could influence reach-scale NO demand. However, because the fraction of median reach-scale travel time due to transient storage () was ≤1.2% across the sites, only a relatively small demand for NO could be generated by transient storage. In contrast, net uptake of nutrients from the water column calculated from nutrient spiraling metrics were not significant at any site because uptake lengths calculated from background nutrient concentrations were statistically insignificant and therefore much longer than the study reaches. These results suggest that low transient storage coupled with high surface water NO inputs have resulted in uptake efficiencies that are not sufficient to offset groundwater inputs of N. Nutrient retention has been linked to physical and hydrogeologic elements that drive flow through transient storage areas where residence time and biotic contact are maximized; however, our findings indicate that similar mechanisms are unable to generate a significant nutrient demand in these streams relative to the loads.

Floodplain restoration enhances denitrification and reach‐scale nitrogen removal in an agricultural stream

Streams of the agricultural Midwest, USA, export large quantities of nitrogen, which impairs downstream water quality, most notably in the Gulf of Mexico. The two-stage ditch is a novel restoration practice, in which floodplains are constructed alongside channelized ditches. During high flows, water flows across the floodplains, increasing benthic surface area and stream water residence time, as well as the potential for nitrogen removal via denitrification. To determine two-stage ditch nitrogen removal efficacy, we measured denitrification rates in the channel and on the floodplains of a two-stage ditch in north-central Indiana for one year before and two years after restoration. We found that instream rates were similar before and after the restoration, and they were influenced by surface water NO3- concentration and sediment organic matter content. Denitrification rates were lower on the constructed floodplains and were predicted by soil exchangeable NO3- concentration. Using storm flow simulations, we found that two-stage ditch restoration contributed significantly to NO3- removal during storm events, but because of the high NO3- loads at our study site, < 10% of the NO3- load was removed under all storm flow scenarios. The highest percentage of NO3- removal occurred at the lowest loads; therefore, the two-stage ditch's effectiveness at reducing downstream N loading will be maximized when the practice is coupled with efforts to reduce N inputs from adjacent fields.

A new time‐space accounting scheme to predict stream water residence time and hydrograph source components at the watershed scale

Hydrograph source components and stream water residence time are fundamental behavioral descriptors of watersheds but, as yet, are poorly represented in most rainfall‐runoff models. We present a new time‐space accounting scheme (T‐SAS) to simulate the pre‐event and event water fractions, mean residence time, and spatial source of streamflow at the watershed scale. We use a physically based hydrologic model together with field data from the well‐studied Maimai M8 watershed and HJ Andrews WS10 watershed to explore how catchment properties, particularly soil depth, controls the age and source of streamflow. Our model simulates unsaturated, saturated subsurface, and surface rainfall‐runoff processes. We first demonstrate the ability of the model to capture hydrograph dynamics and compare the model flow component and age simulations against measured values at the two sites. We show that the T‐SAS approach can capture flow and transport dynamics for the right dominant process reasons. We then conduct a series of virtual experiments by switching soil depths between the two watersheds to understand how soil depth and its distribution control water age and source. Results suggest that thicker soils increase mean residence time and damp its temporal dynamics in response to rainfall inputs. Soil depth influenced the geographic source of streamflow, whereas pre‐event water sources became more concentrated to near stream zones as soil depth increased. Our T‐SAS approach provides a learning tool for linking the dynamics of residence time and time‐space sources of flow at the watershed scale and may be a useful framework for other distributed rainfall‐runoff models.

Spatial and seasonal variations in δ18O and δD values in the River Sava in Slovenia

Stable isotope measurements of oxygen and hydrogen (δ18O and δD) in stream waters and precipitation were used to investigate hydrological pathways and residence times in the River Sava catchment in Slovenia. δ18O and δD values of precipitation exhibited strong seasonal variations. Precipitation is of mixed Atlantic–Mediterranean origin which is also reflected in the isotopic composition of River Sava surface waters. The isotopic content of the river water is dependent on temperature, elevation of the recharge area and amount of precipitation. Spatially, rivers water is 16O-enriched in the high mountain areas due to higher amount of precipitation, lower temperature and higher elevation of the recharge area, while in the lower part of the River Sava catchments the δ18O values are higher. It is also observed that the River Sava responds quickly to precipitation which is reflected in its δ18O and δD values and the low residence time estimated in the river. Using an exponential flow model it was calculated that mean stream water residence times varied between 0.4 and 2.1 years. The shortest residence time determined at Savica is connected mainly to the higher amount of precipitation in the upper Sava watershed and the mountains carbonate karst terrain characterized by a higher runoff. The mean residence time in the main stream water of the River Sava was estimated to be 1.32 years and is in a good agreement with the residence time determined using 3H measurements. These data extend our knowledge in understanding the hydrological cycle of the River Sava, the interactions between precipitation, surface water and groundwater and, at the same time, demonstrate the utility of isotope tracers in determining catchments characteristics.

Preliminary study of flow regimes and stream water residence times in multi-scale forested watersheds of central Cambodia

To elucidate the water cycle in lowland forests of the Mekong River basin, our research group established four experimental watersheds in the Stung Chinit River basin in Kampong Thom Province, Cambodia. The drainage areas of these experimental watersheds ranged from small (4 km2) to mesoscale (3,659 km2). Here, we present the first preliminary results of our rainfall-discharge observations and analyses of temporal variations of stable isotope ratios in rainfall, stream water, and groundwater. This paper focuses on the following three main topics: annual rainfall, discharge, and water balance; stormflow generation and dominant flow pathways; and flow regimes and stream water residence times. All stream water residence times (τ = 1.7–7.5 months) for the four experimental watersheds were shorter than the residence time of the groundwater (τ = 9.4 months) through the soil and regolith layers, implying that the stream waters consisted of not only the groundwater-flow component, but also younger-aged flow components such as saturation-excess overland flow. The smallest (4 km2; O Toek Loork) watershed had longer residence time (τ = 7.5 months) than the three larger watersheds (126–3,659 km2; τ = 1.7–3.9 months). This may suggest differing contributions of the groundwater and younger-aged flow components in the stream water in each watershed. Our approach of multi-scale watershed observation might better contribute to the needs of physically based models and aid in predictions for ungauged basins.

Analysis of pumping‐induced unsaturated regions beneath a perennial river

The presence of an unsaturated region beneath a streambed during groundwater pumping near streams can reduce the pumping capacity, change flow paths, and alter the types of biological transformations in the streambed sediments. A three‐dimensional, multiphase flow model of two horizontal collector wells along the Russian River near Forestville, California, was developed to investigate the impact of varying the ratio of the aquifer to streambed permeability on (1) the formation of an unsaturated region beneath the stream, (2) the pumping capacity, (3) stream water fluxes through the streambed, and (4) stream water traveltimes to the collector wells. The aquifer to streambed permeability ratio at which the unsaturated region was initially observed ranged from 10 to 100. The size of the unsaturated region beneath the streambed increased as the aquifer to streambed permeability ratio increased. The simulations also indicated that for a particular aquifer permeability, decreasing the streambed permeability by only a factor of 2–3 from the permeability where desaturation initially occurred resulted in reducing the pumping capacity. In some cases, the stream water fluxes increased as the streambed permeability decreased. However, the stream water residence times increased and the fraction of stream water that reached that the wells decreased as the streambed permeability decreased, indicating that a higher streambed flux does not necessarily correlate to greater recharge of stream water around the wells.

Runoff processes, stream water residence times and controlling landscape characteristics in a mesoscale catchment: An initial evaluation

Tracer studies, using Gran alkalinity and δ 18O, in nested sub-basins of the 230 km 2 Feshie catchment in the Cairngorm mountains, Scotland, were used to characterise hydrology in terms of groundwater contributions to annual runoff and mean residence times. Relationships between these fundamental hydrological descriptors and catchment characteristics were explored with the use of a GIS. Catchment soil distribution—mapped by the UK's Hydrology Of Soil Type (HOST) digital data base—exerted the strongest influence on flow path partitioning and mean residence times. Smallest groundwater contributions (∼30–40%) and shortest residence times (∼2–5 months) were observed in catchments dominated by peat and/or shallow alpine soils and bedrock. Longer residence times (∼12–15 months) and greater groundwater contributions (∼45–55%) were observed in catchments dominated by more freely draining podzolic, sub-alpine and alluvial soils. These different subcatchment responses were integrated to give intermediate residence times (∼6 months) at the catchment outfall. The influence of catchment topography and scale appeared to be largely mediated by their influence on soil cover and distribution. The study illustrates the potential utility of integrating digital landscape analysis with tracer studies to understand the hydrological functioning of mesoscale catchments.

Using stable isotope tracers to assess hydrological flow paths, residence times and landscape influences in a nested mesoscale catchment

Abstract. δ18O measurements in precipitation and stream waters were used to investigate hydrological flow paths and residence times at nested spatial scales in the mesoscale (233 km2) River Feugh catchment in the northeast of Scotland over the 2001-2002 hydrological year. Precipitation δ18O exhibited strong seasonal variation, which although significantly damped within the catchment, was reflected in stream water at six sampling sites. This allowed δ18O variations to be used to infer the relative influence of soil-derived storm flows with a seasonally variable isotopic signature, and groundwater of apparently more constant isotopic composition. Periodic regression analysis was then used to examine the sub-catchment difference using an exponential flow model to provide indicative estimates of mean stream water residence times, which varied between approximately 3 and 14 months. This showed that the effects of increasing scale on estimated mean stream water residence time was minimal beyond that of the smallest (ca. 1 km2) headwater catchment scale. Instead, the interaction of catchment soil cover and topography appeared to be the dominant controlling influence. Where sub-catchments had extensive peat coverage, responsive hydrological pathways produced seasonally variable δ18O signatures in runoff with short mean residence times (ca. 3 months). In contrast, areas dominated by steeper slopes, more freely draining soils and larger groundwater storage in shallow valley-bottom aquifers, deeper flow paths allow for more effective mixing and damping of δ18O indicating longer residence times (&gt;12 months). These insights from δ18O measurements extend the hydrological understanding of the Feugh catchment gained from previous geochemical tracer studies, and demonstrate the utility of isotope tracers in investigating the interaction of hydrological processes and catchment characteristics at larger spatial scales.

Stable isotope tracers as diagnostic tools in upscaling flow path understanding and residence time estimates in a mountainous mesoscale catchment

δ18O measurements of precipitation and stream waters were used as a natural tracer to investigate hydrological pathways and residence times in the River Feshie, a complex mesoscale (231 km2) catchment in the Cairngorm Mountains of Scotland. Precipitation δ18O exhibited strong seasonal variation over the 2001–02 hydrological year, ranging from −6·9‰ in the summer, to −12·0‰ during winter snowfalls (mean δ18O −9·59‰). Although damped, this seasonality was reflected in stream water outputs at seven sampling sites in the catchment, allowing δ18O variations to be used to infer hydrological source areas. Thus, stream water δ18O was generally controlled by a seasonally variable storm flow end member, mixing with groundwater of more constant isotopic composition. Periodic regression analysis allowed the differences in this mixing process between monitoring subcatchments to be assessed more quantitatively to provide a preliminary estimate of mean stream water residence time. This demonstrated the importance of responsive hydrological pathways associated with peat and shallow alpine soils in the headwater subcatchments in producing seasonally variable runoff with short mean residence times (33–113 days). In contrast, other tributaries with more freely draining soils and larger groundwater storage in shallow aquifers provided more effective mixing of variable precipitation inputs, resulting in longer residence time estimates (178–445 days). The mean residence time of runoff leaving the Feshie catchment reflected an integration of these contrasting influences (110–200 days). These insights from δ18O measurements extend the hydrological understanding of the Feshie catchment gained from other hydrochemical tracers, and demonstrate the utility of isotope tracers in investigating hydrological processes at the mesoscale. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.