Stream Order Research Articles

Characteristics and Comparative Assessment of Flash Flood Hazard Evaluation Techniques: Insights from Wadi Haily Basin, Eastern Red Sea Coast, Saudi Arabia

The Wadi Haily basin in southwest Saudi Arabia, which runs along the Red Sea coast, serves as an ideal natural laboratory for understanding flash flood dynamics in this region. However, limited morphometric and hydrological data are currently available in this area. This study aims to analyze key morphometric effective parameters to examine and assess flash flood risk potential within the basin. Using remote sensing, GIS, geological, and topographical datasets, this research combines advanced modeling and GIS tools to produce detailed flood hazard maps and risk assessments. This study examines 15 sub-basins of varying sizes, characterized by primary stream orders ranging from 4th to 8th. Based on morphometric analysis, the basins are categorized by flood susceptibility: four basins have a low flood risk, five exhibit moderate risk, and six are highly susceptible to flooding. Key findings indicate that the study area features a vast drainage area, high grid cell values of the drainage frequency, moderate drainage density, elongated basin shapes, low infiltration rates, and long overland flow distances, all suggesting a heightened flood hazard. Additional indicators include high values in gradient ratios, slopes, ruggedness numbers, relief ratios, and basin relief, reinforcing the basin’s flash flood vulnerability. This study provides a comprehensive morphological framework that can support strategic flood management and hazard mitigation planning for the Wadi Haily region.

Hybrid model approach for hilly sub-watershed prioritization using morphometric parameters: a case study from Bakkhali river watershed in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT This study investigates the morphometry of the Bakkhali watershed (BW) in the hilly districts of Cox’s Bazar and Bandarban, Bangladesh, to analyze its hydrological characteristics. Morphometric parameters were utilized to prioritize sub-watersheds (SWs) through a hybrid approach combining principal component analysis (PCA) and the weighted-sum approach (WSA). Using ArcGIS Pro 2.7.0, streams, the watershed, and SWs were delineated from a 30-m resolution COP30 DEM. Preliminary priority ranks (PPR) were determined based on direct and inverse relationships of morphometric parameters to soil erodibility. Weighted compound factors (CF) were calculated from PCA results for final prioritization. The BW, a fifth-order watershed with a drainage area of 571.52 km², shows a consistent decrease in the number of streams with increasing stream order, indicating an erosional landform. The mean bifurcation ratio of 4.09 suggests a higher tendency for soil erosion. Shape factors indicate an elongated watershed with less pronounced peak flow characteristics. The analysis identified SW2 and SW3 as high-erosion zones, SW4 and SW9 as medium-erosion zones, and SW1 as a low-erosion zone. The study demonstrates the efficacy of combining geospatial and statistical tools for SW prioritization.

Spatio‐Temporal Variability of Hyporheic Exchange Processes Across a Stream Network

ABSTRACTHyporheic exchange processes (HEP) play a critical role in controlling riverine biogeochemical turnover and ecological functioning. Despite the expected scaling of HEP across stream networks, only limited knowledge exists about how HEP changes over the hydrological year and across the stream network. This study investigates spatial and temporal changes in HEP in a second‐ to fourth‐order stream network in southern Germany. We employed radon, an environmental tracer commonly used for quantifying HEP, to study the relationships between HEP and discharge. Numerical mass‐balance modelling was applied to quantify HEP, and we specifically focused on the hyporheic area (As) and the stream's cross‐sectional area (A). Our findings showed a decrease in As/A with increasing stream order, indicating changes of HEP across the stream network. The absence of a correlation of As with discharge implies that the scaling of HEP may be influenced by a combination of discharge and local heterogeneities in stream geomorphology. Temporal variability in HEP was observed over the hydrological year, with the highest variability in headwater streams. Lower As values were noted in headwaters during summer compared to the other seasons and coincided with an increased groundwater contribution to the streamflow and decreased stream discharge. Although neither stream or groundwater discharge were identified as driving factors for reduced HEP in the headwaters during summer, our findings suggest that hydrological processes that lead to decreased streamflow in headwaters may have influenced HEP further downstream in the stream network. This is evidenced by the larger As/A ratios observed in higher‐order streams during summer compared to other seasons. These findings highlight the necessity for comprehensive investigations of HEP processes over the hydrological year and across the whole stream network.

Comparative Assessment of Suggested Dam Sites Using both Analytic Hierarchy Process and Weighted Sum Method for Rainwater Harvesting in Al-Naft Valley, Eastern Diyala, Iraq

The study compares suggested dam sites for rainwater harvesting in the Al-Naft Valley, east of Diyala Governorate, Iraq, near the Iranian border. The digital elevation model, Operational Land Imager data, ArcGIS 10.8, Global Mapper 24, and Surfer 17 software were employed for this purpose. The watershed, predominantly in Iran 70% with 30% in Iraq, was of the sixth order, covering 1443 km². The total surface runoff volume was estimated at 320,000,000 m³/year using the SCS-CN method, which highlighted challenges due to international border crossings. The evaluation of the suggested dam sites depended on 11encompassed morphometric (stream order), hydrological (annual water income), geometric (reservoir capacity, average depth, surface area of reservoir, and safety factor), demographic (number of capita benefiting), economic (relative cost/ storage, road submerging by the lake, distance to roads) and geopolitical criteria (area of lake crossed international borders). Analytic Hierarchy Process and Weighted Sum Method were used for comparison, with input from 35 experts to weight criteria to evaluate six proposed sites (alternatives). The second, third, and fourth proposed dams are classified as large-sized, while the others are medium-sized. The third proposed dam emerged as the most suitable, offering a storage capacity of 165,000,000 m³, representing 51.5% of annual input water. To align storage with annual water input, multiple dams are preferred. The first, third, and sixth proposed reservoirs, with a total capacity of 237,000,000 m³, constitute 74% of the expected annual water input to the watershed.

DIGITIZATION OF RIVER ATLAS OF BHIMA – PANDHARPUR BASIN.

The availability of the data that is currently present in the form of Topographical format. In the current era of digital data this data needs to be available to be in the form of digital data. This research provides a detailed view of the 1st to 5th order of streams. This further more helps to trace the total distance of streams present. This also helps the CGanga and Namami Ganga for keeping a track of streams and total amount of water reserves depending on the climate. This project helps to create a river atlas of this specific basin i.e Bhima to pandharpur basin. All the data generation and processing are done on ArcGIS a geodata processing software. The processing was done by both digitization and Digital Elevation Model (DEM).

Morphometric analysis and watershed delineation of the Karnaphuli river basin: A comparative study using different DEMs in Chittagong, Bangladesh

AbstractThe present study aimed to delineate a robust watershed boundary and extract its morphometric parameters in the Karnaphuli watershed, Bangladesh, using different digital elevation models (DEMs). Two DEMs, the shuttle radar topographic mission (SRTM) and the terra advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER), were employed to delineate watershed boundaries and evaluate various morphometric characteristics. Raster data such as fill sinks, flow direction, and flow accumulation were utilized to delineate the watershed. The morphometric analysis included the estimation of linear, areal, and relief parameters. The findings revealed a noticeable difference between the datasets; ASTER delineated a larger watershed area than SRTM. Regarding stream order, there were streams ranging from 1st to 6th order, encompassing numerous small, medium, and main channels of the river. Drainage density was calculated as 0.52 km/km² for SRTM and 0.51 km/km² for ASTER, both having a spatial resolution of 30 m. The bifurcation ratio ranged from 1.94 for SRTM to 2.45 for ASTER, indicating varying degrees of structural disturbance influenced by geological factors. The form factor indicated an elongated shape of the study area. The overall dimensions of the streams and the watershed extent suggest moderate mean annual rainfall discharge. The watershed exhibited relatively high denudation rates, attributed to the basin relief. A low drainage density indicated the importance of infiltration processes. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the spatial variability of watershed characteristics, highlighting the need for tailored management strategies for the Karnaphuli River. Implementing targeted conservation measures and watershed management practices based on these morphometric parameters can enhance water resource sustainability and ecological health in the region.

Integrated Morphometric and Hypsometric Analysis of Niragantipalli Micro Watershed Using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System Techniques

Employing Remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) for the morphometric parameters analysis are discovered to be tremendous usefulness in the prioritization of watersheds for soil, water conservation and natural resource management at micro watershed level. The analysis of morphometric parameters plays a crucial role for understanding and managing watersheds. In current study an, attempt was to determine the morphological parameters of Niragantipalli micro-watershed in Chikkaballapura District of Karnataka, India. For detail study, Google earth pro, GPS visualizer conversion toll and Arc GIS were used for preparation of DEM and delineation of the watershed boundary. GIS was used for evaluation of basic, linear, areal and relief aspects of morphometric parameters. The Niragantipalli micro-watershed occupies an area of 632 ha with third order stream (truck order) and dendritic drainage pattern. The mean bifurcation ratio of the micro-watershed is 2.5 it suggests that the drainage system formed on homogeneous rock when the influences of geologic structures on the network of streams were negligible and generate sharp peak flow. With a drainage density of 1.31 km/km2, the drainage network is extremely coarse. The watershed is elongated, as shown by the form factor of 0.27 and elongation ratio of 0.58. The results from the morphometric analysis of the watershed are very beneficial for developing and designing conservation structures of soil and watershed management measures. The hypsometric curves’ structure as well as estimated hypsometric integral results reflects the Niragantipalli Micro Watershed erosional stages. As a result, the study concludes that morphometric and hypsometric analysis findings may be useful to stakeholders participating in catchment development and management projects.

Suitability Assessment and Optimization of Small Dams and Reservoirs in Northern Ghana

Water shortages, exacerbated by erratic rainfall, climate change, and population growth, pose significant challenges globally, particularly in semi-arid regions like northern Ghana. Despite the construction of numerous small dams in the region that were intended to provide reliable water for domestic and irrigation purposes, critical water issues persist during dry periods. Key drivers in this failure are attributed to the lack of studies and/or the number of inadequate studies on suitable dam siting. This study focused on assessing the sites of selected small dams in northern Ghana, employing various methods such as stream order analysis and the Analytic Hierarchy Process within a Geographic Information System framework. Results showed that many existing dams are poorly sited, with over half located far from major stream networks, resulting in drying out during the dry season and failing to meet sustainable water storage standards. This study proposed new dam locations that would allow achieving a significant increase in storage capacities from 30% to 60%. These results highlight the necessity for decision-makers to adopt research-based approaches to address water shortages effectively, balancing agricultural, domestic, economic, and environmental needs. Future research should integrate climate change considerations, long-term monitoring, environmental impact assessments, and advanced decision-making techniques such as machine learning.

Geo-spatial assessment of geomorphic characteristics of Swat Valley, Pakistan

Morphometric analysis is essential for understanding drainage networks and landform evolution, particularly in complex mountainous regions like the Swat Valley. Accurate characterization of these features aids in water resource management and mitigating climate-induced challenges. The study employed GIS and remote sensing technologies, utilizing SRTM-30m DEM data to perform a comprehensive morphometric and hypsometric analysis. Key morphometric parameters such as basin size, stream order, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, circularity ratio, and elongation ratio were calculated by using Whitebox tool. Additionally, three-dimensional parameters including basin relief, roughness number, ruggedness index, and slope were analyzed. Hypsometric analysis was conducted to examine area-elevation relationships, using empirical formulas and contour data. The basin was found to be irregularly shaped, with an elongation ratio of 6.97 and a circulatory ratio of 0.3091, indicating an elongated form. Flow accumulation data highlighted areas of rapid and moderate water flow. Hypsometric analysis showed that 14 sub-basins were in an erosional stage, 8 were mature, and the remainder were older and more resistant to erosion. The overall hypsometric integral (HI) of 0.406 reflects moderate elevation variation across the basin. The study provides critical insights into the geomorphometric controls of the Swat Valley's drainage system, contributing to improved water resource management strategies. Understanding morphometric and hypsometric characteristics is vital for adapting to climate-induced risks and safeguarding water resources in mountainous landscapes.

The Geometry of Flow: Advancing Predictions of River Geometry With Multi‐Model Machine Learning

AbstractHydraulic geometry parameters describing river hydrogeomorphic relationships are critical for determining a channel's capacity to convey water and sediment which is important for flood forecasting. Although well‐established, power‐law hydraulic geometry curves have been widely used to understand riverine systems and mapping flooding inundation worldwide for the past 70 years, we have become increasingly aware of their limitations. In the present study, we have moved beyond these traditional power‐law relationships, testing the ability of machine‐learning models to provide improved predictions of river width and depth. For this work, we have used an unprecedentedly large river measurement data set (HYDRoSWOT) as well as a suite of watershed predictor data to develop novel data‐driven approaches to better estimate river geometries over the contiguous United States (CONUS). Our Random Forest, XGBoost, and neural network models out‐performed the traditional, regionalized power law‐based hydraulic geometry equations for both width and depth, providing R‐squared values of as high as 0.75 for width and as high as 0.67 for depth, compared with R‐squared values of 0.45 for width and 0.18 for depth from the regional hydraulic geometry equations. Our results also show diverse performance outcomes across stream orders and geographical regions for the different machine‐learning models, demonstrating the value of using multi‐model approaches to maximize the predictability of river geometry. The developed models have been used to create the newly publicly available STREAM‐geo data set, which provides river width, depth, width/depth ratio, and river and stream surface area (%RSSA) for nearly 2.7 million NHDPlus stream reaches across the contiguous US.

Flooding Hazard Vulnerability Assessment Using Remote Sensing Data and Geospatial Techniques: A Case Study from Mekkah Province, Saudi Arabia

Flash floods are catastrophic phenomena that pose a serious risk to coastal infrastructures, towns, villages, and cities. This study assesses the risk of flash floods in the ungauged Mekkah province region based on specific and effective morphometric and topographic features characterizing the study region. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data were employed to construct a digital elevation model (DEM) for a detailed analysis, and the geographical information systems software 10.4 (GIS) was utilized to assess the linear, area, and relief aspects of the morphometric parameters. The ArcHydro tool was used to prepare the primary parameters, including the watershed border, flow accumulation, flow direction, flow length, and stream ordering. The study region’s flash flood hazard degrees were assessed using several morphometric characteristics that were measured, computed, and connected. Two different and effective methods were used to independently develop two models of flood vulnerability behaviors. The integrated method analysis revealed that most of the eastern and western parts of the studied province provide high levels of flood vulnerability. Due to it being one of the most helpful topographic indices, the integrated flood vulnerability final map was overlayed with the topographic position index (TPI). The integrated results aided in understanding the link between the general basins’ morphometric characteristics and their topographical features for mapping the different flood susceptibility locations over the entire studied province. Thus, this can be applied to investigate a surface-specific reduction plan against the impacts of flood hazards in the studied landscape.

Watershed Modelling, Using the Geographical Information System (GIS) Approach (Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State Nigeria as Case study)

In a typical watershed area such as the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria, watershed modelling is essential for the sustainable management of water resources, protection of ecosystems and more. In this study, we will be creating a watershed model for FUTO, this study will also cover other aspects such as estimating the depression-less flow direction, delineating the flow accumulation, extracting realistic drainage network using the Strahler’s stream order method and we will also delineate the watershed’s boundary and identify possible outlets / pour points, using the digital elevation model (DEM) gotten from Alaska satellite facility used as a main data source in combination with the PC version of ArcGIS software (ArcMap 10.7) and then we extract the hydrologic information from the DEM in ArcGIS using Hydrology tools. The estimation of depression-less flow direction is done by filling the digital elevation model (DEM). This includes performing fill on sinks to ensure proper delineation of basins and streams. If the sinks are not filled, a derived drainage network may be discontinuous. After the DEM has been filled, then we can now move on to delineating the flow accumulation in the study area. The results shows that by using watershed function in ArcGIS for watershed flow direction and accumulation in FUTO can be determined. The results also shows the drainage network that was extracted by Strahler’s method, showing different orders of streams and it also shows the watershed boundary and pour point / outlets along the Otamiri River which the watershed drains into. This work simply shows the applicability of GIS as a tool of watershed delineation and drainage extraction.

Geo-sustainability Challenges and Remediation Strategies: A GIS-based Assessment of Sripur Coalmine Areas, West Bengal, India

This study examines the health, risk, and safety aspects of coal mining in the Sripur area, focusing on the Bhanora West Block, Asansol, West Bengal, India as one of the 14 operational mines of Eastern Coalfields Limited in Asansol. The study addresses the increasing risks of accidents, fires, and subsidence in active, ageing, and closed mines and storage yards. The study’s incorporation of field surveys, satellite imagery, and environmental data ensures that the findings are based on a well-rounded and multi-faceted dataset. The satellite imagery data (GIS and Remote Sensing) are perceived along with available literature and environmental impact compliance reports from time to time, with particular interest in the Bhanora West coal mine, both open cast and underground. The aspect, Hill shade, LULC and stream order maps of the Damodar are generated using Q-GIS, 3.28.7. The environmental clearance data, accident data, subsidence area, and landslide data are analysed. A vast area in Sripur is observed to be under subsidence, with cracks appearing even near residential areas. The flow of the Nunia nallah is nearby, and old closed mines are not adequately backfilled, so the chance of seepage cannot be neglected though regularly attended. Pneumoconiosis (CWP), a lung disease (black lung), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and silicosis are common in Sripur due to dust and substandard water. Effective and riskless mining extractions using proper technologies can avoid mining hazards, such as subsidence, the influx of water in underground mines, health hazards, air/water pollution, mine fire, and intact physical landscape and observing criteria of sustainable Development Goal SDG-1 SDG-3, SDG-6, SDG 12, SDG-13, and SDG 16.

Impacts of bridge constructions on channel dynamics and sediment aggradation: An integrated discussion, West Bengal, India

Channel dynamics, including channel migration, erosion, and deposition, is a significant geomorphological phenomenon. It has been noted that the Gish River exists with its widest extension between 1913 and 2021, causing a bottleneck situation. The section G4 (Gish-4) experienced the most significant squeezing character over time. The catchment landslide-induced sediments, mostly transported in the monsoon by 1st and 2nd order streams, deposited at the beds near the rail and road bridges of the rivers Lish, Gish, and Chel. Landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) and sediment transport index (STI) maps specify the zones of sediment generation and aggradation. Results of low ‘b” value 0.77 + /−0.04 specify active tectonics and instability of the area. A petrographic analysis of landslide samples and river bed sediments justifies that the landslide connected streams are continuously transported and deposited in the river bed. In the Himalayan foothill rivers like Lish, Gish, and Chel, channel planform dynamics may be the result of landslide occurrences, that induce huge sediments in the rivers and sediment transport index indicates the deposition of the sediments near rail and road bridges in spatio-temporal scale.

Morphometric Analysis Of Amarpatan Block, Madhya Pradesh India, Using GIS And Remote Sensing Techniques

Remote sensing and GIS techniques are used as effective tools for morphometric analysis. Morphometric analysis classification is the most commonly adopted method for waterhed analysis. This method is helpful in conserving water resources by analyzing the drainage aspects of the catchment area. This study was conducted in Amarpatan block of Satna district, Madhya Pradesh. Morphometric features were analyzed using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and ArcGIS software. The area was divided into 6 sub-watersheds. Stream order was determined from first to sixth order, which shows the dendritic drainage pattern. The parameters of morphometric analysis are measured as linear, aerial, and relief aspects (e.g., stream order, drainage density, stream frequency, bifurcation ratio, elongation ratio, etc.). The analysis contributes to understanding watershed management sites for the conservation of soil and water. This study provides information to policy makers for sustainable water resources development and management.

Quantitative fecal pollution assessment with bacterial, viral, and molecular methods in small stream tributaries

Stream water quality can be impacted by a myriad of fecal pollution sources and waste management practices. Identifying origins of fecal contamination can be challenging, especially in high order streams where water samples are influenced by pollution from large drainage areas. Strategic monitoring of tributaries can be an effective strategy to identify conditions that influence local water quality. Water quality is assessed using fecal indicator bacteria (FIB); however, FIB cannot differentiate sources of fecal contamination nor indicate the presence of disease-causing viruses. Under different land use scenarios, three small stream catchments were investigated under ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ conditions (Scenario 1: heavy residential; Scenario 2: rural residential; and Scenario 3: undeveloped/agricultural). To identify fecal pollution trends, host-associated genetic targets HF183/BacR287 (human), Rum2Bac (ruminant), GFD (avian), and DG3 (canine) were analyzed along with FIB (Escherichia coli and enterococci), viral indicators (somatic and F+ coliphage), six general water quality parameters, and local rainfall. Levels of E. coli exceeded single sample maximum limits (235 CFU/100 mL) in 70.7 % of samples, enterococci (70 CFU/100 mL) in 100 % of samples, and somatic coliphage exceeded advisory thresholds (600 PFU/L) in 34.1 % of samples. The detection frequency for the human-associated genetic marker was highest in Scenario 3 (50 % of samples) followed by Scenario 2 (46 %), while the ruminant-associated marker was most prevalent in Scenario 1 (64 %). Due to the high proportion of qPCR-based measurements below the limit of quantification, a Bayesian data analysis approach was applied to investigate links between host-associated genetic marker occurrence with that of rainfall and fecal indicator levels. Multiple trends associated with small stream monitoring were revealed, emphasizing the role of rainfall, the utility of fecal source information to improve water quality management. And furthermore, water quality monitoring with bacterial or viral methodologies can alter the interpretation of fecal pollution sources in impaired waters.

Analysis of drainage morphometry and spectral indices using earth observation datasets in Palar River basin, India

In this research we analyzed the morphometric parameter of Palar River basin by using the satellite data from open sources for monitoring drainage network. Palar River basin covers 1972.27 sq.km areas with elevation of 226.9 m as highest and 38.01 m lowest above mean sea level. In this research it detected that Palar River basin having 5th order stream with drainage density of 0.40 km/km2 and drainage pattern of dendritic to rectangular. We also draw aspect map, relief map and slope map for the research area by using digital elevation model (DEM) data of 30 m resolution. In this research we also employed spectral indices like normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference water index (NDWI), and soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) for the vegetation, water and soil characteristics of the research area. In this research it found that there are major changes in land use/land cover as water bodies and land during these periods of 15 years. Highly positive correlation show between morphometric parameter and spectral indices. In this research groundwater level data for the year 2005 and 2020 are used to validation the study. This research work is very useful in developing solutions for dealing with different types of drought and management of groundwater extraction plans.

Morphometric analysis in the sub basins of the Kali River using Geographic Information System, Karnataka, India

Morphometric analysis serves as a crucial tool for quantitatively characterizing drainage basins and exploring the intricate relationships between hydraulic parameters and geomorphological characteristics. This study presents a comprehensive morphometric analysis of the Kali Subbasin in Karnataka, covering an area of 1175.45 km². Utilizing remote sensing data and GIS tools, we quantified various morphometric parameters, including stream order, stream length, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, stream frequency, form factor, and circularity ratio, to understand the basin's geomorphological and hydrological characteristics. The study area is classified as a seventh-order basin displaying a dendritic drainage pattern with a drainage density of 2.853 km/km². Notably, the bifurcation ratio ranges from 4.396 to 3, indicating low to moderate structural control within the basin. The subbasin's elongated shape, with an elongation ratio of 0.604 and a circularity ratio of 0.298, indicates moderate peak flow and high susceptibility to erosion. Relief parameters showed significant elevation variations, contributing to intense erosion and heightened flood risks in lower-lying areas. The study identifies the basin's transition to a mature geomorphic stage, evidenced by an escalating stream length ratio from lower to higher orders. These findings underscore the importance of tailored watershed management strategies, including floodplain zoning, retention basins, afforestation, and terracing, to mitigate flooding and soil erosion. The study's insights are crucial for developing effective, localized water resource management plans and enhancing the resilience of the Kali Subbasin to future hydrological challenges.

Investigation of the Basin Characteristics through Morphometric Analysis of Hadejia River Sub-Basin: Implications for Groundwater Recharge

Understanding the geohydrological properties of a drainage basin in relation to the topographical feature and its flow patterns depends heavily on morphometric analysis. Estimating a watershed's frequency of infiltration and runoff as well as its other hydrological characteristics is also helpful. The study was conducted using Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques with the aim of establishing relationship between surface morphometry, underlying geology and groundwater recharge. For detailed measurement and analysis, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and high resolution imageries were employed for basin delineation, slope characterization, channel network extraction and stream ordering in order to derive the linear, areal, and relief aspects of morphometric parameters. The findings showed that a total number of 116 streams joined the 4th order stream in which 83 streams were 1st order, 25 streams were 2nd order, 7 streams were 3rd order and the major trunk was 4th order stream, occupied an area of 1486.86km2. The stream network's drainage system exhibits dendritic design. The results further indicate that the values for stream frequency, infiltration number, drainage density, drainage texture, length of overland flow, elongation ratio and basin relief are 0.08, 0.032, 0.41km/km2, 0.023, 1.22km, 0.54 and 28.59m respectively. The observed values of both linear, areal and relief parameters were generally low. Low values for the areal and relief criteria indicates that the sub-basin is at its youthful stage of development and possesses very good permeable subsurface formation and prospect with the possibility of high potential groundwater resources. The result help us understand the connections between hydrological variables and geomorphological parameters as guidance and/or decision-making instruments for the authorities to develop decisions for the environmentally friendly growth of the basin, water supply planning, water budgeting, and disaster mitigation within the Hadejia river sub-basin.

Evaluation of stream ordering systems in the context of topography and open‐source data

AbstractSatellite‐derived digital elevation models (DEMs) and geographic information systems (GIS) offer effective means for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of drainage networks within watersheds. An extensive review of various stream order systems reveals their outdated nature, given advancements in digital technology and the availability of fine to coarse resolutions data. Analysis of open‐source DEMs with resolutions ranging from 12.5 to 225 m, along with topographical maps at scales of 1:50 000 and 1:250 000, was conducted across four physiographically distinct micro‐watersheds of approximately equal size (~300 km2). The steepest descent algorithm (D8) was utilized to derive raster stream networks, applying a channel initiation threshold (CIT) of 900 m2 as a criterion. It was observed that stream order numbers are influenced by map scale, leading to variability in mainstream order extraction across different DEM datasets and topographic maps. To address this issue, an innovative stream order system was proposed to ensure consistent mainstream order regardless of the spatial resolution of DEM data or map scale. Correlation analysis highlighted the importance of considering both spatial resolution and topographic variability in stream order analysis, underscoring the significance of accurate DEM data and landscape characteristics in understanding stream network dynamics. This method of classifying stream orders is recognized by scientists in geography, geology, hydrology and geomorphology for providing crucial information about the size and strength of waterways within stream networks, contributing to effective water management strategies.