Straw Powder Research Articles

Solvent self-doping synthesis of nitrogen/oxygen co-doped porous carbon from cellulose as high performance material for multipurpose energy storage

Developing novel heteroatoms co-doped biomass porous carbon with low-cost, tunable physical/chemical properties, and environmental friendliness is an important candidate to face energy shortage and environmental pollution currently. Herein, a novel solvothermal avenue was designed using triethanolamine as self-doping solvent to treat rice straw powders with KOH. The rice straw with triethanolamine derived carbon (RSTCs-1) possessed hierarchical porous structure, N/O diatomic doping, and large specific surface area. The electrochemical energy storage performance of RSTCs-1 was evaluated in the systems of supercapacitors, aqueous zinc ion hybrid supercapacitors (AZHSs), and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) respectively. As the results, the RSTCs-1 based symmetric supercapacitor exhibited the maximum energy density of ca. 98.4 Wh·kg−1 with the excellent cycling stability. Moreover, both RSTCs-1 AZHSs and RSTCs-1 LIBs achieved the relative high discharge specific capacities of ca. 407.1 and 1906.7 mAh·g−1 at current density of 0.1 A·g−1. These results highlighted the huge potential of the obtained with notable electrochemical performance acting as multifunctional electrode material for the different energy storage devices.

Carbon-based magnetic nano-particle utilizing nano-biochar as core and its immobilizing lipase for biodiesel preparation

Using the transesterification capacity of lipase to produce eco-friendly biodiesel is a promising method for the achievement of a Net Zero future. The method of immobilized lipase enhances the usability of the enzyme and improves its stability. Carbon-based magnetic nano-particles (C-MNPs) with nano-biochar as the precipitation core were prepared as the support to immobilize Candida antarctica lipase B (CalB) for biodiesel preparation. The nano-biochar particles were derived through the calcination of rice straw powder and subsequently ground to the nanoscale. FT-IR, XRD, SEM, and VSM results showed that the obtained C-MNPs with a diameter of 13–17 nm were showing excellent superparamagnetism, and effectively immobilized the lipase on them (CalB@C-MNPs). The optimal reaction conditions in a 100-mL stoppered flask for biodiesel production were dissolving 5 g soybean oil in 3 mL tert-butanol solvent, adding 1.16 mL methanol (molar ratio of methanol to oil 5:1), 0.15 mL water, and 0.2 g CalB@C-MNPs, and then shaking at 200 rpm and 30 °C for 24 h. Its primarily optimized conversion efficiency of biodiesel was 83.1 %. After repeated use of immobilized CalB for 8 cycles, the remaining activity and biodiesel yield were 79.7 % and 66.3 %, respectively. As a robust catalyst, CalB@C-MNPs exhibited outstanding transesterification efficiency, the ability for rapid recovery under an external magnetic field, and a promising candidate in biodiesel production.

Surfactant Regulated Chemical Modification of Rice Straw Powder for Biomass Composite Polyurethane Synthetic Leather

AbstractFor agricultural countries in Aisa, rice straw is a waste product, but also a valuable bioresource, with its recycling methods often drawing widespread attention. In this study, a novel multicomponent extraction method was proposed to perform comprehensive extraction of holocellulose and lignin from rice straw powder (RSP), resulting in modified rice straw powder (MRSP) with different micro‐morphologyies. The results indicate that the cosolvent tetraethylammonium chloride (TEAC) is more effective for extracting holocellulose and lignin compared to others, and different surfactants have decisive impacts on the extraction of holocellulose and lignin from RSP. Among them, anionic surfactants aid in the extraction of holocellulose, with sodium allylate sulfonate (SAS) being superior due to its greater changes in allyl polarity. Conversely, cationic surfactants facilitate the extraction of lignin, with octadearyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (OTAC) being superior due to the length of its alkyl‐carbon chain. And the quantized contribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups of surfactants to the extraction of holocellulose and lignin, as well as, the different micromorphology of MRSP is obtained. Additionally, compared to the traditional PU (polyurethane) modified by eucalyptus wood powder (EWP/PU), the MRSP was used to prepare a series of biomass composite polyurethane synthetic leather (MRSP/PU), its tensile strength and peel strength of MRSP/PU coatings are greatly enhanced at the feedstock of 18 %.

Study on performance deterioration and life prediction of reed straw-recycled brick aggregate concrete after freeze-thaw cycle

The current rate of carbon dioxide emissions poses a significant threat to global climate, making it increasingly important and urgent to lead the carbon-intensive construction industry to achieve carbon neutrality. Currently, the most practical method involves reusing waste materials. In this study, waste red bricks were used to replace 75 % of natural aggregates in concrete, and three different forms of reed stalks (including reed straw ash, reed straw strips, and reed straw powder) were added to prepare the recycled reed straw brick aggregate concrete (RSAC). Freeze-thaw tests were carried out for 25, 50, 75, and 100 cycles in water and sodium sulfate solution to establish a freeze-thaw deterioration model and perform life prediction. The results showed that the degree of freeze-thaw deterioration of the specimens in sulfuric acid solution was small, and the degree of deterioration of reed powder concrete (RSAC-F) and reed ash concrete (RSAC-H) was more serious than reed strip concrete (RSAC-T) and additive-free concrete (RSAC-0). After 100 water freeze-thaw cycles, the strength losses of the specimens were 21.55 %, 21.7 %, 18.71 %, and 20.54 %, and the relative dynamic elastic modulus losses were 6.11 %, 7.25 %, 4.39 %, and 5.79 %, and the mass losses were 1.79 %, 2.04 %, 1.4 %, and 1.5 %. The fitting results showed that the predicted values of the parabolic model and two-parameter Weibull distribution damage model were closer to the experimental values, and the fitting rates are both greater than 90 %. The life prediction results show that the freeze-thaw resistance of the four types of reed-brick aggregate recycled concrete can reach more than 80 years in southern China, meeting the durability requirements, and the RSAC-T and RSAC-0 group concrete could also be used in projects with lower frost resistance requirements in the north region of China.

Pemanfaatan Jerami Padi Dan Serbuk Kayu Menjadi Biopelet Sebagai Bahan Bakar Alternatif

Most human activities use fossil energy to meet their energy needs. Fossil energy is limited in quantity and non-renewable in nature, raising concerns that it may no longer sustain future energy demands. Bio-pellets are an alternative fuel that can address the scarcity of stove fuels such as kerosene and gas. Rice straw is one of the potential biomass materials for bio-pellet production due to its abundance and environmental sustainability. The addition of wood powder in bio-pellet manufacturing can increase calorific value and improve pellet energy efficiency. This research aims to find a bio-pellet formula combining rice straw and wood powder that complies with SNI 8021:2014. The method employed in this study is experimentation, involving the creation of three different bio-pellet compositions. The selection of the best bio-pellet is determined by analyzing the collected data using single-factor RAL in SPSS 24 software. The chosen bio-pellet formulation in this study is KJ1 with a density of 1.457 g/cm3, moisture content of 9.076%, calorific value of 3,924.48 cal/g, and water boiling rate of 284 seconds.

Recycling tempura powder debris derived from the fried food industry as a binder for 3-dimensional biodegradable composites: A novel circular economy alternative to low-performance plastics

Although the collection and recycling of used cooking oils have been well-established, tempura powder debris discarded from the frying process has received little attention. Here, in collaboration with a local company that collects used cooking oil, we estimated that approximately 881,000,000 kg of tempura powder debris is discarded annually in South Korea. The debris was found to contain approximately 60 % of oils that can be extracted through a squeezing process. The resulting cake was proven to be beneficial for the fabrication of 3-dimensional biocomposites with waste biomass powders (e.g., used cardboard and coffee powders and rice straw powder), wherein the polysaccharides from the debris likely serve as a binder. Various complex structures were readily fabricated using heat-drying (90 ℃ for 30 minutes and then at 120 ℃ for 30 minutes for a dish and 130 ℃ for 24 hours for other shapes) and exhibited a compressive strength of 2500 kPa and a thermal conductivity of 0.089 W/(m·K). The overall composite shape was maintained under water soaking, while the compressive strengths were reduced by 40 % under a high humidity. Furthermore, strong sorption for toxic compounds, excellent biodegradability, low cytotoxicity, good-odor emission, and enhanced maize germination rates with bed soils were displayed by using the composites. The performance and function comparisons with commercial expanded polystyrene suggest that using the composites could be multi-beneficial. In conclusion, tempura powder debris from the fried food sector could become a significant bulk waste source, supporting the development of circular economy such as a low-performance plastic alternative.

Nitrogen fixation and calcium activation of oyster shell during composting and its performance on acidic soil amendment

Chicken manure, corn straw and oyster shell powder (OSP) were used as raw materials for organic-inorganic combined composting. Experiments were designed by adding different amounts of OSP (0 %, 20 %, and 40 %), designed as CK, T1, and T2, respectively. In final composts, the pH value increased to 8.72–9.08, and the electrical conductivity ranged from 2.08–3.82 mS·cm−1. The co-composting could effectively reduce ammonia emissions by 54.65 % and could activate the calcium component by 37.5 %. Addition of OSP promoted the humification and the humic acid could increased 86.1 %. This calcium-based compost of oyster shells (OSs) activated by composting was used to plant Brassica napus by pot experiment. Compared with the addition of OSP after composting, the calcium-based compost activated by composting significantly promoted the growth of Brassica napus because of more nitrogen, humus and available calcium in the calcium-based compost. In addition, this calcium-based compost significantly increased pH, organic matter (OM) and exchangeable calcium content in the acidic soil. In general, composting is an effective method to realize the fertilizer utilization of OSs. This composting process could make full use of calcium in oyster shells to achieve nitrogen retention and humification enhancement during composting, meanwhile calcium morphology in oyster shells can be activated and high-quality acidic soil conditioner can be obtained.

Comparison of cell morphology and mechanical properties of wheat straw powder/HDPE parts molded by supercritical fluid foamed injection with and without gas counter pressure technology

AbstractComposites were fabricated using maleic anhydride‐grafted high‐density polyethylene as the matrix material and wheat straw as the filler. Differential scanning calorimetry and rheological properties of these composites were investigated to determine the processing parameters for supercritical fluid (SCF) microcellular injection with and without gas counter pressure (GCP) technology. The impacts of different proportions and dimensions of wheat straw, along with process parameters related to GCP, were determined on both the cellular structure and mechanical characteristics of foamed injection molded components. Experimental results revealed that an increase in the ratio of wheat straw and a reduction in its size led to enhancements in both storage modulus and complex viscosity of the composites, while also improving their cell structure when foamed with SCF. By adjusting GCP process parameters, it was possible to regulate both cell morphology and mechanical properties of foamed injection molded parts. Higher GCP or longer GCP holding time resulted in increased skin thickness and tensile strength but decreased notched Izod impact strength.Highlights Built relations between GCP technology parameters and cell morphologies. Compared the influence of wheat straw powder and GCP parameters quantitatively. Explored the correlation between cellular morphology and mechanical properties. The regulatory mechanism of cell morphology, size ratio, and distribution. GCP effectively modulates cell morphologies and mechanical properties.

Utilization of Adsorbent Based on Rice Straw (<i>Oryza sativa</i>) for Cr(VI) Ions Reduction in Aqueous Solutions

In this study, we utilized an adsorbent based on rice straw for reducing hexavalent chromium ions (Cr (VI)) in an aqueous solution. The rice straw as adsorbent raw material was washed, dried, and powdered. Rice straw powder was heated at 450°C for 2 hours to obtain rice straw adsorbent. The adsorbent was activated with 1M H3PO4 for 4 hours. Characterization of the adsorbent was done using Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) method. FTIR spectra showed the presence of hydroxy, carboxylic, aromatic, and ether groups on the surface of the rice straw and the made adsorbent. The reduction of Cr (VI) ions in aqueous solutions was carried out using the adsorption batch method. The adsorption process was conducted in various the Cr (VI) solutions pH for 1-5 and variations in contact time for 5-720 minutes. The highest percentage reduction of Cr (VI) reached 66.90%. It has occurred at pH 2 and equilibrium at 600 minutes of contact time.

Properties of polyamide epichlorohydrin resin‐modified wood fibers/soybean straw powder copolymerization enhanced soy protein biomass composites

AbstractThe biomass composites were prepared by hot molding with a pressure of 10 MPa, a temperature of 125 °C, a time of 15 minutes using soybean straw powder, poplar wood fibers, and soy protein as raw materials. The effects of different straw species, the ratio of soybean straw powder to poplar wood fibers, the particle size of soybean straw powder, and the theoretical density on the performance of biomass composites were investigated. The experimental results show that under the condition that the ratio of soybean straw powder and poplar wood fibers is 1 : 1, 20 mesh to 40 mesh soybean straw powder and 20 mesh to 60 mesh wood fibers are selected to copolymerize and strengthen the soy protein biomass composites when the theoretical density is 0.80 g/cm3, the actual density of the biomass composites is 0.90 g/cm3, the tensile strength was up to 22.04 MPa, and the bending strength was up to 44.92 MPa. Biomass composites have good water resistance while obtaining excellent mechanical properties. The above figures not only meet the relevant technical requirements of automotive interior parts but also enable the lightweight design of automobiles and the sustainable development concept of green, low carbon, and environmental protection.

Natural weathering degradation studies of the poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3 hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)/paddy straw powder (PSP) biocomposites

The effect of natural weathering exposure time on the poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3 hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)/paddy straw powder (PSP) biocomposites was studied. These biocomposites were naturally exposed to tropical climate weathering conditions in Perlis, Malaysia for 6 months. Tensile test, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were applied to investigate the degradation that happened during natural weathering of the biocomposites. Tensile tests indicated that the weathered PHBV/PSP biocomposites caused lower ultimate strength and elongation to break, but increased the modulus of elasticity. As the exposure time prolonged to 6 months, the concentration of O-H groups became pronounced, indicating severe deterioration of the biocomposites. With a carbonyl chromophoric group in its structure, PHBV can absorb UV radiation directly, which could lead to reactions of Norrish forms I and II. Generally, the addition of PSP has increased the degradability of PHBV. Besides, the exposed PHBV/PSP biocomposite surfaces have undergone surface crazing upon weathering. The surface of the PHBV without the addition of the PSP did not show any crack and fungus colonisation. The higher PSP content loaded in the biocomposites (i.e. 20 wt. %) caused more fungi colonisation, resulting in larger cracks and pores formed on the surface of the samples.

Insights into effect of lignocellulosic biomass framework types on bio-based shape stable composite phase change materials

The utilization of biomass waste as framework materials to inhibit the leakage of phase change material (PCMs) has gained widespread attention. In this work, three new kinds of shape stable composite phase change materials (sscPCMs) were prepared which combined with stearic acid (SA) and peanut shell powders (PSP), poplar wood powders (PWP), and corn straw powders (CSP), respectively. The influence of lignocellulosic biomass types on the thermal energy storage performance of sscPCMs was studied by comparing three types of sscPCMs. The research results indicated that SA/CSP exhibited superior properties in terms of load capacity and thermal energy storage performance. According to leakage experiments the load capacity of SA/PSP, SA/PWP and SA/CSP was 31.67 %, 44.69 %, and 50.09 %, respectively. The phase change latent heat of SA/PSP, SA/PWP, and SA/CSP was 55.78, 84.27 and 98.47 J/g, respectively. In addition, the relationship between biomass component content and load rates was studied. The results showed that there was a positive correlation between the loading rates of SA and the ratio of holocellulose (cellulose + hemicellulose) to lignin. The results provided a promising approach for the selection of lignocellulosic biomass framework materials.

Characterization and evaluation of actinomycete from the Protaetia brevitarsis Larva Frass.

Protaetia brevitarsis larvae (PBL) are soil insects important for the soil organic carbon cycle, and PBL frass not only contains a large amount of humic acid but also affects the diversity, novelty, and potential functions of actinomycetes. Here, we characterized and assessed the actinomycete. The operational taxonomic unit (OTU) data showed that 90% of the actinomycetes cannot be annotated to species, and pure culture and genome analysis showed that 35% of the strains had the potential to be new species, indicating the novelty of PBL frass actinomycetes. Additionally, genome annotation showed that many gene clusters related to antifungal, antibacterial and insecticidal compound synthesis were identified, and confrontation culture confirmed the antifungal activities of the actinomycetes against soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi. The incubation experiment results showed that all isolates were able to thrive on media composed of straw powder and alkaline lignin. These results indicated that PBL hindgut-enriched actinomycetes could survive in soil by using the residual lignocellulose organic matter from plant residues, and the antibiotics produced not only give them a competitive advantage among soil microflora but also have a certain inhibitory effect on plant diseases and pests. This study suggests that the application of PBL frass can not only supplement soil humic acid but also potentially affect the soil microbiota of cultivated land, which is beneficial for the healthy growth of crops.

Synergistic interactions between lignite and biomass during co-pyrolysis from volatile release, kinetics, and char structure

One of the most efficient techniques to achieve efficient utilization of both is coal and biomass co-pyrolysis. Despite a great deal of recent research on the co-pyrolysis process, it is still unknown how biomass affects the co-pyrolysis's synergistic effect and how volatiles interact. This study uses a thermogravimetric analyzer to examine the weight loss law of co-pyrolysis of wheat straw, rice straw, and bamboo powder with various amounts of Zhundong coal. According to the findings, there is a strong positive interaction, a mild positive interaction, and a negative interaction when three different types of biomass (wheat straw, rice straw, bamboo straw) are co-pyrolysis with Zhundong coal. The interaction between wheat straw and Zhundong coal is the strongest when the mass ratio of wheat straw to Zhundong coal is 6: 4. Using a thermogravimetric-infrared spectrometer, the changes in volatile functional groups during co-pyrolysis are investigated. It is discovered that adding wheat straw decreased the amount of CO2 produced by Zhundong coal pyrolysis. Regarding the mechanism of co-pyrolysis, the alkali and alkaline earth metals (AAEMs) on the surface of biochar catalyze the pyrolysis of Zhundong coal, while the “hydrogen donor” and “free radical donor” generated by biomass pyrolysis inhibited the cross-linking and polymerization of macromolecular volatiles produced by Zhundong coal pyrolysis. The activation energy of the mass ratio of wheat straw to Zhundong coal = 6: 4 sample is calculated by three model-free methods. The co-pyrolysis process's average activation energy is determined to be between 175.95 and 194.18 kJ/mol. Through scanning electron microscopy, it is found that the morphology of co-pyrolysis carbon is significantly different from that of single pyrolysis carbon. The porous structure of biochar promotes the secondary cracking of heavy volatiles produced by coal pyrolysis, while the cracking of volatiles further promotes the development of the pore structure of biochar.

Green synthesis of rice straw-derived silica nanoparticles by hydrothermal process for antimicrobial properties and effective degradation of dyes

Rice straw is considered a major agricultural waste that has become a major threat to the environment. However, waste valorization of rice straws is a major challenge for the whole world. Therefore, this research aimed to utilize the different varieties of rice straw including Parmal rice straw (PRS), and Basmati rice straw (BRS) for the synthesis of silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) using hydrothermal autoclave method to precisely modify the particle size, and distribution, morphology and purity. This method uses water as a reaction medium under high temperature and pressure, which results in energy savings and reduced chemical waste compared to traditional methods. Furthermore, SiNPs were characterized using different analytical techniques. SEM showed the rough, compact, and highly ordered surface for both samples, while the SNP exhibited irregular shapes and rough surfaces. Rice straw powder revealed major functional groups at 787 cm−1, 1461 cm−1, and 2919.10 cm−1. BRS and PRS showed thermal stability up to 380 ℃ and 250 ℃, respectively. The particle size of BRS and PRS were found to be 112.47±1.23 nm and 114.98±1.23 nm, respectively. PRS-SiNPs showed the effective dye reduction ability for anthraquinone (96.79%± 0.39) and alizarin yellow (92.63%± 0.17) in 30 min. Additionally, the SiNPs exhibited potential bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in terms of zone of inhibition. Overall, the SiNPs synthesized from PRS demonstrated superior photocatalytic efficiency in the reduction of dyes compared to those synthesized from BRS.

Modeling competitive biosorption for methylene blue removal on rape straw powders using response surface methodology in a ternary dye aqueous solution

The improvement of biosorption efficiency for selective dye removal in a multi-dye aqueous system has become an increasingly significant research topic. However, the competitive effects of coexisting dyes and the target dye in such systems remain uncertain due to complex interactions between adsorbent and coexisting dyes. Therefore, in this research, response surface methodology (RSM) model was effectively employed to investigate the competitive effects of allura red (AR) and malachite green (MG) on methylene blue (MB) removal in a ternary dye aqueous system using three different parts of rape straw powders. In the current design of RSM, the initial concentrations of AR and MG dyes ranging from 0 mg·L−1 to 500 mg·L−1 were considered as influencing factors, while the removal rates of MB on adsorbents at an initial concentration of 500 mg·L−1 were established as response values. The RSM models exhibited high correlation coefficients with adjusted R 2 values of 0.9908 (pith core), 0.9870 (seedpods), and 0.9902 (shells), respectively, indicating a close fitted between predicted and actual values. The proposed models indicated that the perturbation effects of initial AR and MG concentrations were observed on the removal rates of MB by three types of rape straw powders in a ternary dye aqueous system, resulting in a decrease in MB removal rates, particularly at higher initial AR concentration due to stronger competitive effects compared to initial MG concentration. The structures of rape straw powders, including pith core, seedpods and shell, were analyzed using scanning eletron microscoe (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), N2 physisorption isotherm, frourier transform infared spectroscopy (FTIR), Zeta potential classes and fluorescence spectrum before and after adsorption of MB in various dye aqueous systems. The characteristics of rape straw powders suggested that similar adsorption mechanisms, such as electrostatic attraction, pore diffusion, and group complex formation for MB, AR, and MG, respectively, occurred on the surfaces of adsorbents during their respective adsorption processes. This leads to significant competitive effects on the removal rates of MB in a ternary dye aqueous system, which are particularly influenced by initial AR concentrations as confirmed through fluorescence spectrum analysis.

Effects of chemical treatment on natural (rice straw/neem saw dust) fiber morphology and mechanical properties of its composite material

Recent years have seen an increase in the use of natural fibers. Rice straw/natural fiber hybrid composites can recycle agricultural waste easily and eliminate fine silica ash pollution. Composite specimens are created by hand lay-up as per ASTM standards. Unsaturated polyester resins and rice straws are studied using scanning electron microscopy. Hybrid composites reinforced with rice straw and neem powder perform better. The optimal fiber content for impact and flexural strength is 50 % by volume fraction. RSNWP6 fibers with hybrid properties have more significant impact strength, hardness, and flexural strength than other fibers at 516.86 J/m, 45 BIU, and 80.03 MPa.

Preparation and characterization of biomass-ash composites derived from incinerated sewage sludge fly ash after hydrothermal treatment

With the increasing prominence of global environmental issues and the growing demand for sustainable development, biomass composites have attracted widespread attention as candidates for environmentally friendly and renewable construction materials. In this study, environmentally friendly biomass-ash composites (BACs) were fabricated using hydrothermally activated incinerated sewage sludge ash (HT-ISSA) as filler and straw powder with waste sawdust as the biomass matrix for hot pressing. An investigation was conducted into the effect of HT-ISSA on the physical properties of the composite, including the bending strength, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity. The composite prepared with 15 wt% HT-ISSA demonstrated an exceptionally high bending strength (30.60 MPa), compressive strength (44.76 MPa), and low thermal conductivity (0.2380 W/m·K). The enhanced physical properties of the BAC material are attributable to the change caused by hydrothermal treatment of the filler phase. Due to the introduction of hydrated calcium silicate, the cohesion performance of the filler significantly improved, thus leading to strong adhesion and penetration within the matrix. The obtained BAC is applicable for packaging and insulation materials, thus providing an effective solution for the economical and environmentally friendly recycling of incinerated sewage sludge ash and other bulk solid waste. Additionally, it contributes novel insights into alleviating the current shortage of forest resources.

Effect of different straw powder and grain’s flour on mycelial growth of Giant mushroom (Macrocybe gigantea)

Effect of different straw powder and grain’s flour on mycelial growth of Giant mushroom (Macrocybe gigantea)

Author's correction: Relationship Between Rumen Microbial Composition and Fibrolytic Isozyme Activity During the Biodegradation of Rice Straw Powder Using Rumen Fluid.

Author's correction: Relationship Between Rumen Microbial Composition and Fibrolytic Isozyme Activity During the Biodegradation of Rice Straw Powder Using Rumen Fluid.