Classification Of Strata Research Articles

Identifying the Social Urban Spatial Structure of Vulnerability: Towards Climate Change Equity in Bogotá

The constant modification of land use, economic instability, environmental factors, and social behaviour changes among the inhabitants of big cities characterize current urbanism. In Colombia, land-use planning processes supported by geographical information systems are a recent phenomenon and the legal instruments of spatial planning are inadequate in most municipalities. Moreover, socio-spatial equity represents a challenge for Latin American cities in which there is increasing awareness of the role that spatial planning plays. Consequently, the question arises as to how the urban spatial structure and organization contribute to an inclusive and equitable socio-spatial evolution, considering climate change impacts. The case study analysed in this article focuses upon the northern limits of the city of Bogotá. Therefore, this research aims to define the ideal balance of urban land-use distribution between social stratum classification and the vulnerability of the communities seeking to better adapt to climate change. We propose a methodological approach of analysing spatial syntax and the (social) intensity of activities and infrastructure, which enables us to characterize the urban structure itself and identify vulnerable urban instances. As a result, we find that the urban network with low values presents spatial unpredictability in its pattern, constraining equitable development based on the urban morphology of the city. This research allows us to conclude that the degree of vulnerability encountered by the social urban spatial structure is higher in expansion areas than in central areas of the city.

Analysis on Deformation and Stability of Tunnel Anchor Excavation under Broken Rock Mass

Based on the concrete engineering support of the tunnel anchor of the Dadu River Bridge on the Sichuan-Tibet Railway, the geological background of broken rock mass, extremely developed joints and fissures, and poor self-stability of surrounding rock within the range of side anchors in Chengdu, a three-dimensional elastoplastic numerical calculation method is used. The current engineering geological conditions and the tunnel anchor design plan are to establish a three-dimensional fine numerical simulation model of the Chengdu side tunnel anchor that comprehensively considers rock mass unloading, stratum classification, and anchor tunnel excavation and support structure. The “excavation-support” process in each construction footage is simulated to realize the three-dimensional calculation of the dynamic construction and support of anchor tunnels, and to study the surrounding rock deformation, stress and plastic zone distribution changes during the excavation process. Comprehensive analysis found that the deformation of surrounding rock during excavation shows that it develops toward the empty surface, and the displacement distribution is obviously affected by the distribution of ground stress and rock formation. The greater the buried depth, the greater the deformation of the surrounding rock.

Environmental hazard assessment of industrial and municipal waste materials with the applications of RES2-D method and 3-D Oasis Montaj modeling: A case study at Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Peninsula Malaysia

Environmental hazards, industrial, and municipal wastes geochemical and geophysical assessments were carried out at an industrial waste disposal (IWD) site at Bukit Kepong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. RES2-D geophysical method was applied, capable of identification and quantification of the industrial wastes; buried hazardous materials (BHM) and their effects on the subsurface stratum, from the moderately saturated zones, to fully saturated zones housing the aquifer units underneath the water table. Six RES2-D survey profiles were respectively acquired along E-W, and N-S directions. The perpendicular arrangement of the RES2-D survey lines, was tenaciously designed to make possible, the industrial waste materials (IWM)and municipal solid waste (MSW) quantification, with sufficient length of survey lines set at 200 m, and electrode spacing of 5 m, to cover as much details segments of the IWM and MSW as possible. The six RES2-D inversion results, helped in the subsurface stratum classification into three layers, namely; soft layers, which encompasses the waste materials, with varied resistivity values i.e., 0–100 Ω-m, at 10–15 m depths. The consolidated layers produced varied resistivity values i.e., 101–400 Ω-m, at 15–20 m depths. The bedrock has the highest resistivity values i.e., 401–2000 Ω-m, at depths > 20 m. The estimated volume of the waste materials was 312,000 m 3, using 3-D Oasis Montaj modeling via rectangular prism model generated from the inverted RES2-D. Results from the geochemical analysis helped in the validation of the site as a potential contaminated zone with severe health effects.

Applications of Geophysical Logs to Coal Mining—Some Illustrative Examples

Geophysical logs can be used not only for qualitative interpretation such as strata correlation but also for geotechnical assessment through quantitative data analysis. In an emerging digital mining age, such a use of geophysical logs helps to establish reliable geological and geotechnical models, which reduces safety and financial risks due to geological and geotechnical uncertainty for new and existing coal mining projects. This paper presents some examples of geological and geotechnical characterizations from geophysical logs at various coal mines in Australia and India. The applications include rock strength and coal quality estimations, automated lithological/geotechnical interpretation and geophysical strata rating, all based on geophysical logs. These derived parameters could provide input to modelling, control, even ‘digital twin’ generation in a form of geological and geotechnical models as part of the future digital mining. The outcomes can be visualized in 3D space and used for identifying the key geotechnical strata units that are responsible for caving behaviors during longwall mining. This could assist site geologists and planning and production engineers predict and manage mining conditions on an ongoing basis. Both conventional logs such as density, natural gamma and sonic and less common logging data, such as full waveform sonic, televiewer and SIROLOG spectrometric natural gamma logging data are examined for their potential applications. The geotechnical strata classification and rock strengths predicted from the geophysical logs match the laboratory tests, drill core geotechnical strata classification, core photos and the mining condition/behavior observed. These illustrate the usefulness and effectiveness of using geophysical logs for geological and geotechnical characterizations.

Educational innovation in the business field: a systematic review according to Brazilians coordination of higher education improvement stratum classification

This paper aims to bring a better understanding of educational innovation related to business and economics by presenting systematic review on educational innovation, from papers indexed in Web of Science, without temporal delimitation, until 2017. Among the studies found, 18 papers were published in journals with A1 and A2 stratum in the Brazilian coordination of higher education improvement, categorised according to educational innovation dimensions proposed by OECD (2014). It seeks to offer a qualitative analysis of how these researches are being directed, observing the gaps related to the research object, as well as to understand how the field envisions the theme of educational innovation. The results reveal the predominance of empirical studies towards school, considering more global studies on the market and theoretical research. There is need for more studies focused on other dimensions such as innovation in resources availability for classroom's teaching and educational marketing.

Educational innovation in the business field: a systematic review according to Brazilian's coordination of higher education improvement stratum classification

Educational innovation in the business field: a systematic review according to Brazilian's coordination of higher education improvement stratum classification

Green roofs as habitats for wild plant species in urban landscapes: First insights from a large-scale sampling

The urban landscape is known to form a hostile matrix for wild plant communities because of its sealed infrastructure surfaces. However, green roofs can reduce this hostility by providing new spaces for wildlife directly on buildings. In this extensive study of 115 green roofs in northern France, we focused on wild plant communities and the variables that shaped their diversity and their taxonomic and functional compositions. A total of 176 colonizing vascular plant species were identified; 86% were natives, demonstrating that green roofs can serve as habitats for wild biodiversity despite their isolation in an urban landscape in three dimensions. Nonetheless, all types of green roofs were not equal, with the substrate depth playing a major role in the wild plant diversity. The taxonomic and functional compositions of the colonizing plant communities were also shaped by the substrate depth, green roof age, surface area, and height and maintenance intensity at the building scale. We did not detect any effect of the surrounding potential habitats at the landscape scale. The study of functional traits revealed that the wild plant communities are adapted to open xero-thermophilous conditions. This study led us to consider an ecological typology for green roofs referred to as stratum classification, which is based on the vegetal structures living and colonizing these anthropo-ecosystems. Wild roofs adapted to receive spontaneous species could play an interesting role in urban biodiversity dynamics if they continue to be developed at large scales in cities.

이러닝수요부문 사업체실태조사를 위한 표본설계

The e-learning industry status survey statistic provides information about the actual conditions of supply and demand of the e-learning industries. NIPA (National IT Industry Promotion Agency) has published the annual report of the survey results since 2004. Due to the 9th version of the KSIC (Korean standard industrial classification) revised in 2008, a refinement of the sampling design for the survey becomes necessary, especially that for the business demand sector. This article, based on the 9th revision of the KSIC, constructs a stratification of the target population used for the e-learning industry status survey on the business demand sector. Classification of strata in the business population is based on the industrial type and employment scale of business. Under the stratified population, we design a sampling scheme by using the power allocation method that enables us to satisfy a target coefficient of variation of each industrial stratum. In order to secure an accurate survey results based on the proposed sampling design, we consider the problem of calculating the design weights, derivation of parameter estimators, and formulas of their standard errors.

Research on Influence Factors of Strata Classification Based on Fuzzy Cluster Analysis and Fuzzy Pattern Recognition

Traditionally, it is usually depended on engineers’ personal experience and habits to establish the strata layers on the basis of the original data when they doing the desk studies of a site investigation work, which are greatly subjective and nondeterministic. A method in combining the fuzzy cluster analysis and fuzzy pattern recognition is presented to classify stratum. Firstly, the sample integration is classified by adopting clustering analysis method. The fuzzy model is set up for different degree. Afterwards, the undetermined forecasting sample is predicted by applying fuzzy pattern recognition. Through actual validation, the reliability of the prediction is tested and verified.

Fuzzy inference system for identification of geological stratigraphy off Prydz Bay, East Antarctica

Abstract The analysis of well logging data plays key role in the exploration and development of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Various well log parameters such as porosity, gamma ray, density, transit time and resistivity, help in classification of strata and estimation of the physical, electrical and acoustical properties of the subsurface lithology. Strong and conspicuous changes in some of the log parameters associated with any particular geological stratigraphy formation are function of its composition, physical properties that help in classification. However some substrata show moderate values in respective log parameters and make difficult to identify the kind of strata, if we go by the standard variability ranges of any log parameters and visual inspection. The complexity increases further with more number of sensors involved. An attempt is made to identify the kinds of stratigraphy from well logs over Prydz bay basin, East Antarctica using fuzzy inference system. A model is built based on few data sets of known stratigraphy and further the network model is used as test model to infer the lithology of a borehole from their geophysical logs, not used in simulation. Initially the fuzzy based algorithm is trained, validated and tested on well log data and finally identifies the formation lithology of a hydrocarbon reservoir system of study area. The effectiveness of this technique is demonstrated by the analysis of the results for actual lithologs and coring data of ODP Leg 188. The fuzzy results show that the training performance equals to 82.95% while the prediction ability is 87.69%. The fuzzy results are very encouraging and the model is able to decipher even thin layer seams and other strata from geophysical logs. The result provides the significant sand formation of depth range 316.0– 341.0 m, where core recovery is incomplete.

Automated geotechnical characterisation from geophysical logs: Examples from Southern Colliery, Central Queensland

Conventionally, geotechnical information comes from cored drill holes. However, coring is expensive and most boreholes are drilled without or with very limited coring. Alternative ways of obtaining geotechnical information need to be found. One approach is by geophysical logging. Borehole geophysical logging is carried out routinely at coal mines. It measures various in-situ petrophysical parameters which are usually correlated with rock types and can be used for rock mass characterisation, litho-stratigraphic interpretation, orebody delineation and grade estimation. This paper presents examples of automated geotechnical characterisation from geophysical logs to identify the key strata responsible for caving behaviours during longwall coal mining at Southern Colliery in Central Queensland. The method is based on computer program LogTrans. Conventional logs such as density, natural gamma and UCS (derived from sonic transit time) logs and full wave sonic data are examined. The geotechnical units predicted from the geophysical logs are well matched with the original strata classification and core photographs. A 3D geotechnical model has been established based on the LogTrans geotechnical interpretation. The results could assist site geologists, planning and production engineers predict and manage mining conditions on an ongoing basis.

Automated Geotechnical Characterisation from Geophysical Logs: Examples from Southern Colliery, Central Queensland

Conventionally, geotechnical information comes from cored drill holes. However, coring is expensive and most boreholes are drilled without, or with very limited coring. Alternative ways of obtaining geotechnical information need to be found. One approach is by geophysical logging, which is carried out routinely at coal mines. It measures various in-situ petrophysical parameters which are usually correlated with rock types and can be used for rock mass characterisation, litho-stratigraphic interpretation, orebody delineation and grade estimation.This paper presents examples of automated geotechnical characterisation from geophysical logs to identify the key strata responsible for caving behaviours during longwall coal mining at Southern Colliery in Central Queensland. The method is based on computer program ‘LogTrans’. Conventional logs such as density, natural gamma and sonic derived UCS (Uniaxial Compressive Strength) logs and full waveform sonic data are examined. The geotechnical units predicted from the geophysical logs are well matched with the original strata classification and core photographs. The results could assist site geologists, planning and production engineers predict and manage mining conditions on an ongoing basis.

Use of discriminant analysis for classification of strata in sedimentary successions

The technique of instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) has been used to analyze chip samples of geological material for 12 elements. Discriminant analysis has been used to classify the unknown chip samples to the correct stratum in a sedimentary succession.

The Stratigraphic Panorama

Stratigraphy means literally the descriptive science of strata. It deals with the composition, form, arrangement, distribution, succession, and classification of rock strata and it also involves the interpretation of these features in terms of mode of origin, environment, age, history, relation to organic evolution, and relation to other geologic concepts. Stratigraphy concerns itself with the complete picture of the rocks of the earth9s crust as strata of various kinds and the significance of these strata in the earth9s geological development. There are many branches of stratigraphy, depending on the particular features of rock strata under consideration. One of the most important is chronostratigraphy which deals with the age determination and age classification of strata. Its basic purpose is to interpret the history of the earth through the chronologic sequence of its rock strata. The principal means used to work out chronostratigraphy are (1) the physical interrelations of strata, (2) the relation of strata to sequence of organic evolution, and (3) radioactivity age determinations. Valuable supplementary evidence of age or chronostratigraphic position can be supplied by other features of rock strata and other geologic phenomena such as lithology, mineralogy, ore deposits, chemical composition, paleomagnetism, paleoclimatology, changes in sea level, orogeny, igneous activity, and unconformities. However, few of these can be proved to have had effects which were distinctly recognizable, identical in character, and synchronous over the whole world. Coordinated utilization of all possible lines of relative and absolute age determination and time correlation offers the best promise for continued progress in chronostratigraphy. Joined to the problem of the dating of strata and the establishment of their sequence with respect to earth history is the task of chronostratigraphic classification. The record of 4 thousand million years, written in millions of cubic miles of strata, is too vast to be comprehended as a whole and it is necessary to break it down into smaller more practicable units. The only adequate reference standards for the scope of these chronostratigraphic units are specifically designated intervals of rock strata—stratotypes. The fundamental unit of world-wide chronostratigraphic classification is the system. The systems, largely established in Western Europe during the first half of the last century, were originally thought to constitute “natural” units with respect to earth history. In view of the local and rather haphazard manner in which most of them originated and the primitive state of world geological knowledge at that time, it is difficult now to see them as “natural” divisions of world-wide extent. Nevertheless the belief is still supported by many, including the USSR Stratigraphic Commission, that the systems are marked off by a concurrence of major events in geologic history and major changes in the course of organic evolution. They assume that all lines of Stratigraphic evidence converge to form “natural” divisions of strata with respect to time and that hence separate kinds of Stratigraphic classification—lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, etc.—are unnecessary. On the other hand, investigations by other competent workers of the evidence for world-wide “natural breaks” in either the diastrophic record or the record of organic evolution have resulted in strong judgments to the contrary. The conclusion seems reasonable, regardless of what may be proved eventually, that it has not yet been demonstrated that world-wide “natural breaks” in the general character and continuity of strata exist at the scale of the presently accepted geologic systems nor that the evidence at the boundaries of the present systems is such as to allow them to be considered as the “natural” world-wide division points of the chronostratigraphic scale. Rather, the evidence suggests that our geologic systems are only arbitrary chronostratigraphic units in a continuum characterized by intricately overlapping and not necessarily coincident changes in the many and various properties and attributes of rock strata and that their principal significance is that of standard units of chronostratigraphic reference, independent of other kinds of Stratigraphic classification. Regardless of opinion on the relation of these units to events of earth history, the critically important point is that the systems and their major subdivisions should be tied down by international agreement to specifically designated and delimited sequences of rock strata—stratotypes—so as to provide a uniform basis of definition for everyone.

An Opinion on the Classification of Strata

The writer recognizes two distinct systems in the classification of strata., One is a lithologic classification defined solely by lithologic characters and the other is a bio-chronologic classification defined solely on basis of bio-chronologic time-concepts., In the former, four fundamental units (stratum [bed], member, formation, group) and four supplemental units (subformation, superformation, subgroup, supergroup) are recognized., Stage, series, system and erathem belong to the biochronologic classification.,

The Base of the Devonian

My attention has recently been called to some very interesting comments on the problem of the delimitation of the Silurian and Devonian systems, which were made by Dr. Elles in her Presidential address to Section C of the British Association at Liverpool. I am so heartily in agreement with all the principles of the modern classification of strata, as laid down by Dr. Elles, that it seems of advantage to recall very briefly how closely these principles are adhered to in using the Ludlow Bone-bed as the local base of the Devonian in England.

IV.—Tertiary and Post-tertiary Stratigraphy

As a basis for the following observations on the classification of Tertiary and Post-tertiary strata, we submit a comparative view of the nomenclature adopted by various authors.

Salt-water Fish-Types in Fresh Water

MR. HARDMAN'S observations on the occurrence of “sea-fish in fresh-water rivers” (NATURE, vol. xxix. pp. 452–53) are not by any means unique, as he has supposed. On the contrary, cases similar to those he has recorded are so frequent as to justify him in believing that “some caution must be observed in the classification of strata as fresh-water or marine on the evidence of fish alone.” The incursion and confinement of the two types specially mentioned—the “sunfish” and “shark”—in fresh water have many parallels. For instance, in NATURE, vol. xiii. p. 107, Messrs. W. W. Wood and A. B. Meyer have recorded that “near Manila is the Lacuna de Baij, a large sheet of water” whose “water is quite fresh, and, after settling, perfectly potable,” but in which live a sunfish (Pristis perotellii) and a small shark. Further, in Lake Nicaragua, whose mean height above mean tide in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is 107.63 feet, are likewise found a sunfish—apparently Pristis antiquorum—and a peculiar shark—Eulamia (or Carcharias) nicaraguensis. The last have been especially noticed in a “Synopsis of the Fishes of Lake Nicaragua, by Theodore Gill, M.D., and J. F. Bransford, M.D., U.S.N.,” in 1877 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., pp. 175–91). Therein it is also urged that “these instances, supplemented as they are by many others, are sufficient to convey a caution against too extensive generalisation of the physiographical conditions hinted at by fossil remains of aquatic types.”