Prey Strategies Research Articles

Can adaptive prey refuge facilitate species coexistence in Bazykin’s prey–predator model?

Bazykin’s prey–predator system with constant and adaptive prey refuge is investigated in this paper. We examine Bazykin’s resource consumer system with exponential growth rate and by employing constant prey refuge we demonstrate that refuge does promote species coexistence. The incorporation of constant prey refuge expands the stability zone for the interior equilibrium. Furthermore, the bifurcation diagram with reference to prey refuge (ur) shows how ur influences the system’s behavior from unstable to periodic stability and then to equilibrium stability. Next, we provide a Bazykin’s model with adaptive prey refuge and develop a fitness function for the prey population using refuge as a strategy and in order to obtain the prey’s optimal response to the environment we determine evolutionary stable strategies (ESS). Our model consists of more than one ESS, thus we employ the best response dynamics for the prey strategy. Our analysis showcases that adaptive refuge used by the prey population promotes the coexistence of prey–predator dynamics. Our theoretical analysis is supported by extensive numerical simulations. Bifurcation diagrams with reference to the two most crucial parameters, namely, δ2 (intra-species competition rate among predators) and τ (the rate at which populations adapt to their environment), are included in the numerical analysis. Species cohabitation along a limit cycle or at an equilibrium is discovered to be dependent on the pace of strategy dynamics and the competition amongst predator species.

Enhancing resilience of agricultural microgrid through electricity–heat–water based multi-energy hub considering irradiation intensity uncertainty

Agricultural microgrid propounds a tailored and cost-effective platform for multi-energy supply in rural areas but also faces the challenge of supply outages because of the fragile grid structure. This paper proposes an electricity–heat–water based multi-energy hub (EHWbMEH) to enhance the resilience of agricultural microgrid, with the objectives of minimization of operation cost and maximization of resilience. To this end, the stochastic characteristics and coupling relationship of photovoltaic and solar thermal outputs are first investigated by introducing expected power not served and expected power curtailment. Subsequently, the EHWbMEH consisting of energy conversion, storage, and distribution devices is developed to ensure the resilience of the agricultural microgrid during supply outages. On this basis, a multi-objective resilience-economic operation model for EHWbMEH considering irradiation intensity uncertainty is presented, and the Pareto frontier is derived by applying the multiple preys based evolutionary predator and prey strategy. According to the simulation results, when the electricity, heat, and water supply are interrupted, the total operation cost of the optimal trade-off solution is $3740.141, while the electricity, heat, and water load resilience can reach 63.37%, 84.72%, and 80.55%, respectively. Case studies demonstrate the effectiveness and performance of the proposed method.

Counterintuitive prey strategies against predators with finite budgets: protection heterogeneity among sites matters more than their number.

Combining the search and pursuit aspects of predator-prey interactions into a single game, where the payoff to the Searcher (predator) is the probability of finding and capturing the Hider (prey) within a fixed number of searches was proposed by Gal and Casas (J. R. Soc. Interface 11, 20140062 (doi:10.1098/rsif.2014.0062)). Subsequent models allowed the predator to continue its search (in another 'round') if the prey was found but escaped the chase. However, it is unrealistic to allow this pattern of prey relocation to go on forever, so here we introduce a limit of the total number of searches, in all 'rounds', that the predator can carry out. We show how habitat structural complexity affects the mean time until capture: the quality of the location with the lowest capture probability matters more than the number of hiding locations. Moreover, we observed that the parameter space defined by the capture probabilities in each location and the budget of the predator can be divided into distinct domains, defining whether the prey ought to play with pure or mixed hiding strategies.

Does social motivation mitigate fear caused by a sudden sound in horses?

Living in a herd has multiple advantages for social species and is a primary survival strategy for prey. The presence of conspecifics, identified as a social buffer, may mitigate the individual stress response. Social isolation is, therefore, particularly stressful for horses, which are gregarious animals. However, they are not equally vulnerable to separation from the group. We tested whether more and less socially dependent horses and independent individuals would differ in their responses to novel and sudden sounds occurring in two contexts: non-social and social motivation. Twenty warmblood horses were first exposed to two social tests: to evaluate the level of social dependence (rate of restless behaviour; social isolation) and the quantity and the quality of interactions in which they were involved (stay on a paddock). Two fear audio tests were then performed to compare the responses to sudden sounds while feeding (non-social motivation; control trial) and while moving towards the herd (social motivation; experimental trial). Socially dependent horses showed more pronounced avoidance behaviour and needed much more time to resume feeding during the control trial. Hence, dependent individuals appeared to be more fearful. However, during an experimental trial, horses of both groups tended to ignore the sound or paid only limited attention to the stimulus, continuing to move forward towards their conspecifics. Thus, social motivation may mitigate fear caused by a frightening stimulus and make fearful and dependent horses more prone to face a potentially stressful event. This finding should be taken into account in horse training and management.

Pursuit-evasion dynamics for Bazykin-type predator-prey model with indirect predator taxis

We study a pursuit-evasion diffusive predator-prey model which combines prey-taxis in predators with evasive defense strategy of prey being capable to move in the opposite direction to the gradient of a chemical signal secreted by the predators (indirect predator taxis). The kinetic part of the model extends the Rosenzweig MacArthur predator-prey model by assuming an intraspecific competition among predators, as in the classical Bazykin model. The prey-taxis takes into account density-dependent velocity suppression of predators while chasing the prey. The assumptions enable us to prove the existence of global-in-time classical solutions for space dimension n≤3 which are not expected to exist for the Rosenzweig MacArthur model according to numerical simulations which depict a finite time blow-up of solutions for n=2.

Editorial: How enemies shape communication systems: Sensory strategies of prey to avoid eavesdropping predators and parasites

EDITORIAL article Front. Ecol. Evol., 05 September 2022Sec. Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.989763

Both prey and predator features predict the individual predation risk and survival of schooling prey.

Predation is one of the main evolutionary drivers of social grouping. While it is well appreciated that predation risk is likely not shared equally among individuals within groups, its detailed quantification has remained difficult due to the speed of attacks and the highly dynamic nature of collective prey response. Here, using high-resolution tracking of solitary predators (Northern pike) hunting schooling fish (golden shiners), we not only provide insights into predator decision-making, but show which key spatial and kinematic features of predator and prey predict the risk of individuals to be targeted and to survive attacks. We found that pike tended to stealthily approach the largest groups, and were often already inside the school when launching their attack, making prey in this frontal 'strike zone' the most vulnerable to be targeted. From the prey's perspective, those fish in central locations, but relatively far from, and less aligned with, neighbours, were most likely to be targeted. While the majority of attacks were successful (70%), targeted individuals that did manage to avoid being captured exhibited a higher maximum acceleration response just before the attack and were further away from the pike's head. Our results highlight the crucial interplay between predators' attack strategy and response of prey underlying the predation risk within mobile animal groups.

Generalized Type-2 Fuzzy Parameter Adaptation in the Marine Predator Algorithm for Fuzzy Controller Parameterization in Mobile Robots

This article is oriented to the application of generalized type-2 fuzzy systems in the dynamic adjustment of the parameters of a recent metaheuristic based on nature that follows the rules of the best feeding strategies of predators and prey in ecosystems. This metaheuristic is called fuzzy marine predator algorithm (FMPA) and is presented as an improved variant of the original marine predator algorithm (MPA). The FMPA balances the degree of exploration and exploitation through its iterations according to the advancement of the predator. In the state of the art, it has been shown that type-2 fuzzy increases metaheuristic performance when adapting parameters, although there is also an increase in the execution time. The FMPA with generalized type-2 and interval type-2 parameter adaptations was applied to a group of benchmark functions introduced in the competition on evolutionary computation (CEC2017); the results show that generalized FMPA provides better solutions. A second case for FMPA is also presented, which is the optimal fuzzy control design, in the search for the optimal membership function parameters. A symmetrical distribution of these functions is assumed for reducing complexity in the search process for optimal parameters. Simulations were carried out considering different degrees of noise when analyzing the performance when simulating each of the used fuzzy methods.

Experiments on invertebrate predation on cladocerans and its relationships with lake data

Until recently, knowledge of the impact of invertebrate predators on cladocerans in the Brazilian Lake Monte Alegre was limited to a few species. In order to assess the effects of predation on other cladoceran species, experiments were carried out with different pair-wise combinations of prey species. The experiments tested predation by fourth instar larvae of the dipteran Chaoborus brasiliensis Theobald on neonates and adults of the cladocerans Daphnia gessneri Herbst, Diaphanosoma birgei Kořínek, and Ceriodaphnia richardi Sars, and predation by the water mite Krendowskia sp. on neonates and adults of C. richardi and D. gessneri. In replicated treatments, the prey was offered alone or in combination with neonates and adults of two species and kept in bottles on a plankton wheel under controlled temperature, photoperiod, and light conditions. Chaoborus larvae preyed on neonates of D. birgei and D. gessneri and on adults of the former species. They preyed preferentially on neonates and adults of D. birgei over neonates and adults of C. richardi. The mite Krendowskia sp. preyed on only one species: neonates and adults of D. gessneri. Data on the distribution and strategies of prey in the lake are discussed in light of the experimental results, in an attempt to establish a link between laboratory data and field conditions.

The Dynamics of a Tritrophic Leslie-Gower Food-Web System with the Effect of Fear

The avoidance strategy of prey to predation and the predation strategy for predators are important topics in evolutionary biology. Both prey and predators adjust their behaviors in order to obtain the maximal benefits and to raise their biomass for each. Therefore, this paper is aimed at studying the impact of prey’s fear and group defense against predation on the dynamics of the food-web model. Consequently, in this paper, a mathematical model that describes a tritrophic Leslie-Gower food-web system is formulated. Sokol-Howell type of function response is adapted to describe the predation process due to the prey’s group defensive capability. The effects of fear due to the predation process are considered in the first two levels. It is assumed that the generalist predator grows logistically using the Leslie-Gower type of growth function. All the solution properties of the model are studied. Local dynamics behaviors are investigated. The basin of attraction for each equilibrium is determined using the Lyapunov function. The conditions of persistence of the model are specified. The study of local bifurcation in the model is done. Numerical simulations are implemented to show the obtained results. It is watched that the system is wealthy in its dynamics including chaos. The fear factor works as a stabilizing factor in the system up to a specific level; otherwise, it leads to the extinction of the predator. However, increasing the prey’s group defense leads to extinction in predator species.

Stochastic day-ahead scheduling of irrigation system integrated agricultural microgrid with pumped storage and uncertain wind power

Agricultural microgrid provides a promising solution for energy supply of rural areas in a cost-effective way. In this paper, the principle of wind-pumped storage integrated agricultural microgrid to fulfill both the electric and water load demand is explored. From the perspective of risk aversion, the indexes of expected power not served (EPNS) and expected power curtailment (EPC) are derived to evaluate the uncertain wind power. Then, a stochastic day-ahead scheduling model of wind-pumped storage power system and irrigation system is proposed to minimize the total operation cost whilst achieve the peak load shaving by taking the advantage of wind-pumped storage compensation. The proposed model is a complex optimization problem that takes into account distributed generations, electrical and water demand, turbine flow rate, and irrigation time and volume. We propose a intraspecific competition (IC) based evolutionary predator and prey strategy (EPPS) to solve the model. Finally, simulation results conducted on an agricultural microgrid have verified that, compared to previous works in the literature, the proposed model can effectively improve the utilization of wind power, reduce the operation cost of microgrid as well as smooth load curve. Additionally, the proposed algorithm can get a more competitive solution than other recently developed algorithms.

Multi-objective cost-effective optimization for defending against false data injection attacks in power system operation

With the rapid development of smart grid, the false data injection (FDI) attacks have grown to become one of the crucial threats faced by future power system operation. It is revealed that an attacker can significantly increase the loss of load demand (LoLD) of a power system by launching undetectable FDI attacks. Thus, it is necessary to establish a cost-effective mechanism for mitigating the LoLD against FDI attacks. In this paper, we develop a multi-objective cost-effective optimization model to make a trade-off between the least-budget defense costs to protect power system against FDI attacks and the least-LoLD to immune the possibility of power outage in dispatching. Then, a multiple preys-based evolutionary predator and prey strategy (MPEPPS) is presented to obtain the Pareto front that summarizes the compromise between the economic performance and the reliability factor of power system. The simulation results on the IEEE testing system verify the effectiveness of the proposed model and reveal that power system operation faces a high LoLD risk under FDI attacks.

Pursuit and Evasion Strategies in the Predator-Prey Interactions of Fishes.

Predator-prey interactions are critical to the biology of a diversity of animals. Although prey capture is determined by the direction, velocity, and timing of motion by both animals, it is generally unclear what strategies are employed by predators and prey to guide locomotion. Here we review our research on fishes that tests the pursuit strategy of predators and the evasion strategy of prey through kinematic measurements and agent-based models. This work demonstrates that fish predators track prey with variations on a deviated-pursuit strategy that is guided by visual cues. Fish prey employ a mixed strategy that varies with factors such as the direction of a predator's approach. Our models consider the stochastic nature of interactions by incorporating measured probability distributions to accurately predict measurements of survivorship. A sensitivity analysis of these models shows the importance of the response distance of prey to their survival. Collectively, this work demonstrates how strategy affects the outcome of predator-prey interactions and articulates the roles of sensing, control, and propulsion. The research program that we have developed has the potential to offer a framework for the study of strategy in the predator-prey interactions of a variety of animals.

Stable DNA Sequence Over Close-Ending and Pairing Sequences Constraint.

DNA computing is a new method based on molecular biotechnology to solve complex problems. The design of DNA sequences is a multi-objective optimization problem in DNA computing, whose objective is to obtain optimized sequences that satisfy multiple constraints to improve the quality of the sequences. However, the previous optimized DNA sequences reacted with each other, which reduced the number of DNA sequences that could be used for molecular hybridization in the solution and thus reduced the accuracy of DNA computing. In addition, a DNA sequence and its complement follow the principle of complementary pairing, and the sequence of base GC at both ends is more stable. To optimize the above problems, the constraints of Pairing Sequences Constraint (PSC) and Close-ending along with the Improved Chaos Whale (ICW) optimization algorithm were proposed to construct a DNA sequence set that satisfies the combination of constraints. The ICW optimization algorithm is added to a new predator–prey strategy and sine and cosine functions under the action of chaos. Compared with other algorithms, among the 23 benchmark functions, the new algorithm obtained the minimum value for one-third of the functions and two-thirds of the current minimum value. The DNA sequences satisfying the constraint combination obtained the minimum of fitness values and had stable and usable structures.

Responses of bat-prey to prescribed burns and mechanical thinning

Insects are an important aspect of forest and woodland ecosystems due to their role as prey for vertebrate species. Our research investigated the relationship between insects and forest management practices in the Ozark National Forest in Arkansas. We looked at the differences in biomass, abundance, and diversity of insects in 30 treatment stands with varying burn frequencies. Twelve of these stands were burned and mechanically thinned, 12 were only burned, and 6 were untreated. The burn frequencies of these stands range from being burned 0–4 times from 2007 to 2018. We deployed blacklight traps in each of the stands every month from mid-March to mid-November in 2019 to assess nocturnal bat prey. Over 30,070 insects were collected, with Lepidoptera being the most abundant order. Insects were dried, weighed, and identified for diversity metrics. We used multi-model selection and AICc to find the top models from a series of linear mixed effects models to determine the best forest management strategies for bat prey. Total nocturnal, aerial insect biomass, Lepidoptera biomass, and Macroheterocera abundance was lower in thinned stands. However, it is unclear if it is the removal of Lepidoptera tree hosts or changes to bat foraging activity that drove this relationship. Stands burned at high frequencies had a higher abundance of Coleoptera. The intermediate disturbance hypothesis was not supported with regards to Lepidoptera diversity and burn frequency. Burning at high frequencies (4 times per 12 years) and not thinning may be the best strategy for maximizing nocturnal Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, respectively.

Attacks of songbirds in mixed‐species flocks by Eurasian Sparrowhawks: strategies of predators and potential prey

Attacks of songbirds in mixed‐species flocks by Eurasian Sparrowhawks: strategies of predators and potential prey

Sustainable strategies for harvesting predators and prey in a fluctuating environment

The effects of harvest and fluctuating environment on inter-dependent predators and prey are complex and not well-known. We define a stochastic model where the predators and prey dynamically interact. The novelty of the model holds on the fact that predators and prey dynamics are simultaneously affected by correlated environmental noises. Interacting predators and prey are harvested using a proportional threshold harvesting strategy that accounts for stochastic population dynamics. Optimal yield of prey can be obtained with identical harvesting strategies when the predators and prey responded to the environment similarly (i.e., synchrony between species) and differently (i.e., asynchrony between species). Remarkably, our study demonstrates that two different harvesting strategies, the proportional harvesting strategy for the prey and the proportional threshold harvesting strategy for the predators, are needed to optimize the annual yield of predators and prey when both species are harvested simultaneously. Our study finds optimal strategies for harvesting interacting species affected by environmental variations (i.e., correlated noises) with parameters representing the joint dynamics of predators and prey at a stable state.

Predator-prey system: Prey’s counter-attack on juvenile predators shows opposite side of the same ecological coin

The dynamics of a predator-prey model with stage-structure on predator and counter-attacking behavior such that the prey can attack juvenile predator, is investigated in this paper. Adult predators may easily achieve success in overcoming prey strategies designed to protect themselves from attack but juvenile predators, which are in the learning stage of predation, may be vulnerable to counterattack by preys in self-defence due to their comparatively smaller size and eventually get killed. Our main objective is to understand how the dynamics of counter-attacking by the preys against juvenile predators help in its survival. Both exponential and logistic growth of the preys are considered in this investigation. In qualitative analysis, permanence, impermanence, and stabilities of all the equilibrium points of the system are discussed to investigate the dynamical behavior of the system. The inclusion of sub-critical and super-critical Hopf bifurcations makes the dynamics more interesting. The mathematical approaches advocated here complement and enhance the theoretical and numerical approaches applied to the system.

Mimicry in Cretaceous Bugs.

SummaryMimicry is ubiquitous in nature, yet understanding its origin and evolution is complicated by the scarcity of exceptional fossils that enable behavioral inferences about extinct animals. Here we report bizarre true bugs (Hemiptera) that closely resemble beetles (Coleoptera) from mid-Cretaceous amber. The unusual fossil bugs are described as Bersta vampirica gen. et sp. nov. and Bersta coleopteromorpha gen. et sp. nov. and are placed into a new family, Berstidae fam. nov. The specialized mouthparts of berstids indicate that they were predaceous on small arthropods. Their striking beetle-like appearance implies that they were either involved in defensive mimicry or mimicked beetles to attack unsuspecting prey. The latter would represent the first case of aggressive mimicry in the invertebrate fossil record. These findings enrich our understanding of the paleoecological associations and extinct behavioral strategies of Mesozoic insects.

Dynamics and pattern formations in a three-species predator-prey model with two prey-taxis

In this paper, we study a reaction-diffusion system with prey taxis which models the dynamics of a two-predator-one-prey ecosystem in which the predators collaboratively take advantage of the prey's strategy. The global existence and boundedness of solutions of the system in bounded domains of arbitrary spatial dimension and small prey-taxis sensitivity coefficients are proved. It is also shown that such prey-taxis qualitatively affect the stability of coexistence steady state solutions in some cases, and the emergence of forceful prey-taxis will enhance the spatial patterns.