Strategic Minerals Research Articles

Characterization of pegmatites in the La Motte Batholith area, Preissac-La Corne Plutonic Suite, Abitibi Subprovince and its implications for exploration

This project focuses on the study of pegmatite characteristics in the La Motte Batholith (LMB) sector in the Abitibi Subprovince, located between the cities of Rouyn-Noranda and Val d'Or, and approximately 30 km west of the North American Lithium mine (101.9 Mt @ 1.06 % Li2O; Sayona Québec). The study area hosts mineralizations in critical and strategic minerals, most notably the Authier deposit, which are exclusively associated with Li-Cs-Ta pegmatites. The aim of the study is to characterize the mineralogical and geochemical properties of the pegmatites in the sector to better target lithium exploration. This characterization enables the subdivision of various families of pegmatites in the LMB sector, ranging from barren pods to spodumene-rich dykes. Within the LMB, the pegmatitic facies exhibit chemical characteristics similar to those of intersecting pegmatite dykes, suggesting a genetic link between the La Motte Batholith monzogranite and the different pegmatite families despite a possible age difference of several million years. The results also confirm that elemental ratios from whole-rock analyses (K/Rb, K/Cs, Nb/Ta, Mg/Li, and Zr/Hf) within lithium-bearing dykes show the lowest values compared to other dykes, regardless of the sampling location within the same dyke. Potassium feldspar and muscovite microprobe analyses from different pegmatites also reveal K/Rb and K/Cs ratios similar to whole-rock analyses, thereby strengthening the assessment of the fractionation degree of the LMB pegmatites. These ratios thus allow for targeting sectors hosting highly fractionated dykes even where spodumene has not yet been identified.

A de-risking toolkit for legal practitioners: the core critical and strategic minerals compendium

Over the course of the past decade, critical and strategic minerals lists have soared in popularity globally. Though nomenclature may range from critical minerals to critical raw materials, the core understanding is generally one informed by critical functionality – often linked to the energy or digital transition or to military purposes – and economic scarcity, which renders it vulnerable to supply chain disruptions. This paper develops a compendium of core critical and strategic minerals with global importance by comparing the critical and strategic minerals lists of ten jurisdictions (Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and collating a single list on the basis of clear majority representation. Because most mining law practitioners are not trained geologists, the paper then unpacks information that will be valuable to practitioners who encounter a given critical mineral in their practice: Where is it listed as a critical and strategic mineral? Geopolitically speaking, what does the world's security of supply look like? What are its main uses and why is it critical? How is it mined and refined, and are there any particular associated risks? What are the social and environmental impacts that are specifically associated with this mineral (as opposed to impacts broadly associated with all mining)? How easily substitutable is this commodity (given that that constitutes an economic risk to the mine)? Finally, what is the position regarding recyclability? Critical and strategic minerals vary in important ways from one another. The careful practitioner will want to derisk critical and strategic mineral projects in a targeted manner, mindful of the characteristics of the commodity at hand. Thus a rare earths project raises different considerations than a lithium one. Bespoke contracts require insight into the characteristics of critical and strategic minerals, as outlined in the Core Critical and Strategic Minerals Compendium.

Comprehensive Study on Hydrogeological Conditions and Suitability Evaluation of In Situ Leaching for Sandstone-Hosted Uranium Deposit in Erlian Basin

As a strategic mineral and energy resource, the enrichment and metallogenic mechanism of sandstone-hosted uranium deposits are highly dependent on hydrogeological conditions. However, the relationship between sandstone uranium mineralization and hydrogeological conditions has not received sufficient attention yet. The pumping test, hydrogeological parameters and hydrochemical characteristics were employed to analyze the change characteristics of hydrogeological conditions and evaluate the suitability of in situ leaching (ISL). The results showed that the study area in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region could be divided into two groundwater subsystems, namely Quanzha-Engeriyin and Luhai-Zhendai. The latter with relatively high water richness is confined and a main ore-bearing aquifer, which consists of four orebodies. The well discharge (Q) and hydraulic conductivity (K) of Orebody II ranged from 98.40 to 867.36 m3/d and 0.25 to 5.64 m/d, respectively, indicating the aquifer is suitable for the migration, enrichment and mineralization of uranium due to relatively high permeability and fast flow rate. The water storage of Orebodies III-IV gradually deteriorated from east to west in a stepped pattern. And the highest values of Q and K in Orebodies III-IV decreased from 1200 m3/d to 120 m3/d and 1.75 m/d to 0.035 m/d, respectively, suggesting these were conducive to a reduction in and accumulation of uranium under poor hydrodynamic conditions. Additionally, the study area would be defined as three grades, including favorable, relatively favorable and unfavorable areas of ISL according to a comprehensive evaluation. This study provided a scientific basis for evaluating the possibility of in situ leaching for sandstone-hosted uranium deposit.

The Differences in the Li Enrichment Mechanism between the No. 6 Li-Rich Coals and Parting in Haerwusu Mine, Ordos Basin: Evidenced Using In Situ Li Microscale Characteristics and Li Isotopes

As a potential strategic mineral resource, lithium (Li) in coal measures (including coal and parting) has attracted increasing attention from scholars globally. For a long time, Li in coal measures has been studied mainly on the macro-scale (whole rock); however, the microscopic characteristics of Li and Li isotope variations in coal measures are less well known. In this study, the No. 6 coal measures in the Haerwusu Mine were studied using ICP-MS, XRD, SEM-EDS, MC-ICP-MS, and LA-ICP-MS. The geochemical and mineralogical characteristics, the microscale distribution of Li in minerals, and the Li isotopes of Li-rich coal and parting in the No. 6 coal measure were investigated. The results show that the Li content in the No. 6 coal seam ranges from 3.8 to 190 μg/g (average 83 μg/g), which is lower than the parting (290 μg/g) and higher than the comprehensive evaluation index of Li in Chinese coal (80 μg/g). LA-ICP-MS imaging showed that Li in the coal is mainly contained within cryptocrystalline or amorphous lamellae aluminosilicate materials, and the Li content in lenticular aggregate kaolinite is low. The Li in parting is mainly found in illite/chlorite. The δ7Li of the coals was 3.86‰, which may be influenced by the input of the source rock. The δ7Li of the parting (7.86‰), which was higher than that of the coal, in addition to being inherited from the source rock, was also attributed to the preferential adsorption of 7Li by the secondary clay minerals entrapped in the parting from water during diagenetic compaction. Finally, by integrating the peat bog sediment source composition, sedimentary environment evolution, and Li isotope fractionation mechanism of No. 6 coal, a Li metallogenic model in the Li-rich coal measure was initially established. In theory, the research results should enrich the overall understanding of the Li mineralization mechanism in coal measures from the micro-scale in situ and provide a scientific basis for the comprehensive utilization of coal measure resources.

Study on the Impact of State Relations on Chinas Industrial Supply Chain Upstream from the Perspective of International Trade: A Case Study of Mineral Resources

As a major global power, Chinas overseas interests are rapidly expanding. Ensuring the security of industrial supply chains has become a critical issue. This paper adopts the perspective of international trade, utilizing the random frontier gravity model, and focuses on the top five mineral products and raw materials exported from China to India according to the 2019 export composition table of the Ministry of Commerce of the Peoples Republic of China. Based on export data of these minerals from China to India between 2008 and 2023, this paper analyzes the trends in mineral import and export, studies the correlation between bilateral trade between China and India and changes in Sino-Indian relations, and points out the potential impact of current Sino-Indian relations on Chinas upstream industrial chain. The study finds that for mineral fuels, mineral oils and their products, asphalt, zinc and its products, and steel products, Sino-Indian relations have a relatively minor impact on Chinas imports of such minerals and raw materials from India. However, for steel resources, Sino-Indian relations show a significant positive correlation with their import situation. Based on the current state of Sino-Indian relations, the study will propose relevant recommendations for the production and export of Indian steel and other mineral resources, combined with the needs of Chinas upstream industrial supply chain. This study aims to provide relevant insights and references for safeguarding Chinas strategic mineral resource security.

A review of mechanism and technology of vanadium extraction from strategic mineral black shale

A review of mechanism and technology of vanadium extraction from strategic mineral black shale

Emerging Processes for Sustainable Li‐Ion Battery Cathode Recycling

AbstractThe colossal growth in the use of Li‐ion batteries (LiBs) has raised serious concerns over the supply chain of strategic minerals, e.g., Co, Ni, and Li, that make up the cathode active materials (CAM). Recycling spent LiBs is an important step toward sustainability that can establish a circular economy by effectively tackling large amounts of e‐waste while ensuring an unhindered supply of critical minerals. Among the various methods of LiB recycling available, pyro‐ and hydrometallurgy have been utilized in the industry owing to their ease of operation and high efficiency, although they are associated with significant environmental concerns. Direct recycling, a more recent concept that aims to relithiate spent LiBs without disrupting the lattice structure of the CAMs, has been realized only in the laboratory scale so far and further optimization is required before it can be extended to the bulk scale. Additionally, significant progress has been made in the areas of hydrometallurgy in terms of using ecofriendly green lixiviants and alternate sources of energy, e.g., microwave and electrochemical, that makes the recycling processes more efficient and sustainable. In this review, the latest developments in LiB recycling are discussed that have focused on environmental and economic viability, as well as process intensification. These include deep eutectic solvent based recycling, electrochemical and microwave‐assisted recycling, and various types of direct recycling.

Assessing China's rare earth supply security

As strategic minerals become increasingly critical in the competition among great powers, combined with high-quality development requests, their security issues gain more prominence. Based on an in-depth understanding of the connotation of China's strategic mineral security, this article developed a rare earth security assessment index system with 3 sub-objects: global supply stability, domestically economic security and coexistence, then conducted sensitivity analysis using Monte Carlo simulation. The results show that: (1) Global supply stability increased, then fluctuated and declined due to deficiencies in sustainable development and politics, affecting China's long-term rare earth security index; (2) Domestically economic security was weakening due to reduced mine supply, impacting China's short-term rare earth security index; (3) The coexistence index was rising, influenced by industry chain security changes, with increases benefiting China's rare earth security index; (4) China's rare earth security level rose from 2010 to 2022, tracking the coexistence index, indicating that international market integration boosts rare earth security. Based on the above findings, the article puts forward corresponding policy implications.

Nuclear Logging in Geological Probing for a Low-Carbon Energy Future – A New Frontier?

This paper examines the potential of nuclear logging techniques, ubiquitous in the petroleum industry, to extract geological information needed to support the transition to the low-carbon energy future being envisioned to replace fossil fuels and explores the technological advances needed. Assessment to date, using Monte Carlo modeling and available measurements shows promise in (1) monitoring injected CO2 for carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) to mitigate climate change, (2) assessing sites to bury high-level waste to support nuclear power generation and later monitor buried radioactive waste, and (3) in geothermal, a renewable option. For each case, standard techniques, while promising, also show technological gaps. Additionally, two postulated low-carbon areas supporting renewable energy generation are briefly examined—downhole quantification of strategic minerals and prediction and detection of naturally occurring hydrogen in the geology. Three related technology areas are also examined: transition from the current dual-track philosophy of nuclear logging tool design to a compact, more universally applicable advanced accelerator-based multiple-parameter tool concept, incorporation of artificial intelligence-guided physical health management systems to minimize generator failure, and advances in generation/detection hardware and software. Software advances would include codes with dynamic visualization and improved nuclear data libraries to design, calibrate, and assess tools, especially to provide a priori space-time profiles of attendant multiple radiation types, which would arise in the novel systems being postulated. Two exotic concepts, recently suggested also for downhole use, associate-particle imaging to monitor casing integrity of wells storing methane and hydrogen and muon-based deep density probing, are briefly explored.

Prospects for the discovery of strategic mineral deposits (Cu, Co, Ni, EPG, Sc, V, Li, REE, Sr, graphite, hydrocarbons) in the diamond-bearing areas of the South of Western Yakutia

Prospects for the discovery of strategic mineral deposits (Cu, Co, Ni, EPG, Sc, V, Li, REE, Sr, graphite, hydrocarbons) in the diamond-bearing areas of the South of Western Yakutia

Wirkung staatlicher Maßnahmen zur Sicherung der Rohstoffversorgung

Abstract This paper underscores the importance of securing strategic mineral raw materials for economic competitiveness, particularly in Germany. It highlights the dependency on imports, leading to reliance on resource-rich countries. The paper discusses the risks of this dependency, including supply disruptions from exogenous shocks. It explores national economic policies to increase supply security and presents a quantitative analysis showing that active resource policy can significantly reduce supply risk for national companies.

Dilema ochrany klimatu z pohledu práva: obnovitelné zdroje versus ochrana biodiverzity

The use of renewable energy is one of the priorities of common EU policies to achieve carbon neutrality and mitigate the effects of climate change. On the other hand, the protection of biodiversity, which also contributes to climate protection and is even a much older priority, is also one of the EU’s long-term priorities. In this article, the author analyses the current European and Czech climate legislation. He concludes that the analysis of the legislation shows that renewable energy production and biodiversity protection must be considered together in terms of planning, decision-making and enforcement. Climate protection can only be achieved if, in the future, the replacement of fossil energy sources is not unilaterally promoted in energy reform at the expense of biodiversity and the functioning of natural ecosystems. The question is, however, whether the Czech Republic is serious about measures towards carbon neutrality and energy security when it is still buying oil, natural gas and other strategic minerals from Russia two years after the Russian invasion of Ukraine began.

Geochemical signature and prediction of mechanical characteristics of bituminous sand

The worldwide interest in bituminous materials can be linked to being a strategic minerals of significant economic value and numerous engineering, industrial and infrastructural applications. Hence, detailed characterization in terms of geochemical, geological and geotechnical properties is very crucial. In this work, bituminous sands were characterized using geochemical signatures and attempts were made to determine the usefulness of chemical, physical and mineralogical indices for predicting the mechanical parameters needed by engineering practitioners using bituminous sand. This is very important particularly at the beginning of the project where data availability may pose a problem. This was achieved by conducting several laboratory tests and statistical analyses on bituminous sands obtained from different locations and depths. The bituminous sand is heterogeneous and the STI, Lc, SA, Kr and WIP are the geochemical signatures that could be used for characterization of the samples. The chemical indices (STI, Lc, SOC, SA, S/SAF, Kr and WIP) are the best for predicting the yield stress and compressibility. The fines content (Fc) can successfully predict the compressibility, yield stress and uniaxial compressive strength. Depending on the parameter needed, the relationships could be used by practicing engineers working on these materials.

Preconcentration of a Medium-Grade Celestine Ore by Dense Medium Cyclone Using a Factorial Design

A semi-industrial scale hydrocyclone with a 250 mm internal diameter was used to concentrate medium-grade celestine ore (75%–85% celestine) from the Montevive deposit of Granada (Spain) using a dense ferrosilicon (FeSi) medium. For this purpose, a Box–Behnken factorial design (BBD) was carried out, with the response variable being the Sr concentration measured by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), as well as the concentration of celestine measured by X-ray diffraction (XRD) of the mineral collected from the under (sunk) stream of the hydrocyclone. The experimental factors to be optimised were the density of the medium in the mixing tank (water, FeSi, and feed mineral) varying from 2.7 to 2.9 kg/L, the hydrocyclone inlet pressure from 0.8 to 1.2 bar, and the hydrocyclone inclination (from 15° to 25° from the horizontal). The range of densities of the dense medium to be tested was determined from previous sink–float experiments using medium-grade ore, in which the distribution of mineral phases with different particle size fractions was determined. To evaluate the separation behaviour, the following parameters were considered: the enrichment ratio (E), the tailings discarding ratio (R), and the mineral processing recovery (ε). From the factorial design and the response surface, the optimum parameters maximising celestine concentration in the under stream (78%), were determined. These optimised parameters were: a density of 2.75 kg/L for the dense medium, an inlet pressure of 1.05 bar, and a hydrocyclone inclination varying from 18° to 20°. Under these conditions, a 94% recovery of celestine (68% Sr) can be achieved. These results show that medium-grade celestine ore, accumulated in mine tailings dumps, can be effectively concentrated using DMS hydrocyclones and that the operating parameters can be optimised using a factorial experiment design. This study can contribute to reducing overexploitation of strategic mineral resources, avoiding blasting and environmentally damaging clearing, by applying a simple and sustainable technique.

Current supply status, demand trends and security measures of chromium resources in China

Chromium, a strategic mineral resource in China, is widely used in high-precision equipment manufacturing. As the world’s leading consumer and importer of chromite, China’s external dependence exceeds 99%. The significant imbalance between domestic supply and demand seriously threatens national economic security. This study discusses the state of China’s chromium resource supply from four aspects: the overview of domestic and global chromium resources, China’s chromite production and import volume, the sources of imported chromite, and risk analysis. Considering the chromium industrial chain and factors such as production, consumption, and recovery tendency of chromium-bearing stainless steel, it is forecasted that China’s demand for chromium ore will decline by 2040. This could considerably reduce the security situation of chromium resources. This study proposes five strategies for securing chromium resources: technological innovation, enhancing international cooperation and acquiring overseas resources, constructing a new pattern of “dual circulation” resource guarantee for sea–land transportation, encouraging chromium recycling, and building an emergency management system and strategic reserve mechanism for chromium resources.

한국의 중석수출과 한미중석협정의 체결

This study examines the historical context and process leading to the signing of the US-ROK Tungsten Agreement, which legitimized American intervention in Korea’s key natural resource and resulted in imbalances in trade relations. Tungsten emerged as a pivotal strategic mineral in the 20th century for weapons production. In WWII, the United States classified the mineral as a ‘strategic material’ and sought to secure a stable stockpile. The communization of China expedited the search for alternative sources, with South Korea emerging as a non-communist alternative after heavy reliance on Chinese tungsten until 1947. Efforts to faciliate exports of Korean tungsten ores to the US commenced under the US Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK), gaining momentum during the Korean War and culminating in the signing of the Agreement in 1952. The Korean War marked two pivotal shifts in the US-SK bilateral trade relationship as well as in the SK tungsten mining industry. First, the Korean War halted US aid agencies’ plans to rehabilitate Korean economy. Simultanesously, the global surge in demand for tungsten emphasized the need for an exclusive purchase contract to ensure seamless war effort and sustained ore production. Conversely, the Korean War stopped the increasing trend in ore exports since 1948, removing a major source of SK government’s foreign exchange. However, as the conflict extended, discussions about postwar reconstruction initiated, with SK tungsten providing a crucial financial asset for reconstruction efforts. The signing of the Agreement led SK into an exclusive trade relationship with the US. However, this outcome did not arise from unilateral intent but rather exemplified a conflict of interests between SK and US. This paper calls for understanding geopolitical considerations and nuanced negotiations that shaped the exclusive trade ties during this critical period.

Роль россыпных месторождений в обеспечении воспроизводства минерально-сырьевой базы дефицитных видов стратегического минерального сырья России на современном этапе

Placer deposits had (and for a number of components still have) an important role in providing strategic types of mineral resource base for both Russia and the world as a whole. Placers have a number of advantages that make them in demand by the mining industry: relatively shallow (often accessible for open-pit mining) occurrence, disintegrated state of productive deposits, simplicity of enrichment processes (mainly gravitational systems), as well as the possibility of rapid involvement in exploitation, which significantly reduces payback period for investments. All this is even more relevant for modern Russia, when, in the shortest possible time, in conditions of a shortage of credit resources, it is necessary to implement a program of import substitution and provide the country with scarce types of strategic mineral raw materials, such as gold, platinum group metals, tin, rare metals, titanium, chromium, diamonds.

Pathways to decolonize North-South relations around energy transition

Climate coloniality manifests in the violent appropriation of territories in the Global South, including the extraction of strategic minerals such as copper and molybdenum to service energy transition and green growth for the major world powers. Peasant communities in the Intag river valley in Ecuador have been resisting large-scale mining for decades and, thus, have built up a local solidarity economy as a livelihood alternative. This includes communitarian hydropower projects at different scales, which are designed not only to provide families with extra income or jobs but also to build virtuous circles that avoid deforestation, protect biodiversity, and strengthen relations in all their dimensions: within communities, with nature, and with organized actors in the Global North who recognize and wish to cancel their climate debt.

Europe's economic geology generates exploitable critical mineral resources enabling to reduce its geopolitical dependence- Progress beyond state-of-the-art.

Mineral raw materials were for many years the missing link in the climate debate. It is now evident that climate goals can’t be met without them. Mineral-based lithium battery and neodymium magnets value chains are not in balance between upstream-downstream efforts e.g. electric vehicles boom when energy transition mineral resources are yet not secured, Considering the long period of time (from exploration to mining takes about 15 years) needed for the mineral value chains to be fully operational, the technologies addressing the implementation plan of climate change goals might not always readily available due to lack of the mineral resources needed. However, Europe’s opportunity to become self-sufficient in mineral raw materials supply from own sources and resources, is strongly favored by its geological setting and metallogenetic evolution. Critical and strategic mineral raw materials from European primary and secondary resources produced in Europe can be taken as a guarantee for high standards in social, environmental, and economic terms. Elements and practices related to circular economy, responsible sourcing and resource efficiency addressed by the new EU industrial strategy, should be particularly considered. Major European mineral belts, such as Fennoscandian, Iberian, Carpathian-Balkan, host highly potential exploration targets challenging the likelihood for discovery of new resources and feasible mining prospects. At this stage recycling is not significant resource provider for some of the critical and strategic mineral raw materials. For the EU and the rest of the world to develop mineral supply chains, less dependent on China, strengthening key technology value chains, including processing, refining and metallurgy facilities, seems to be a dominant target.

Development of Process Flow Sheet for Recovering Strategic Mineral Monazite from a Lean-Grade Bramhagiri Coastal Placer Deposit, Odisha, India

The present investigation deals with the development of a process flow sheet for recovering strategic mineral monazite concentrate from a lean-grade offshore placer deposit of the Bramhagiri coast along the southeast coast of Odisha, India.In the present study, both dry and wet processes are investigated to improve the recovery and purity of monazite. The results of the pre-concentration studies reveal that by using multi-stage spiral concentrators, the Total Heavy Minerals [THM] have been upgraded to 97.8% with a monazite content of 0.33% from a feed sample containing 4.72% total heavy minerals and 0.01% monazite content. The beneficiation studies revealed that the feed was initially subjected to a high-tension separator, and the non-conducting fraction of the high-tension roll was further subjected to magnetic separation. The magnetic product was again subjected to a flotation process followed by cleaning of the flotation product using a magnetic separator. This magnetic product contains 98.89% monazite with 84% recovery and 0.28% yield from a spiral product containing 0.33% monazite and qualifies for extracting rare earths. It is worth recovering monazite mineral from even lean-grade deposits, as it is a source of uranium, thorium, and rare earth elements and is very high in demand for humankind due to technological advancements. In view of this, monazite recovery is not to be considered for the economic profitability of the process but for strategic requirements.