Strains Of Plasmodium Falciparum Research Articles

In vitro antiplasmodial and anticancer analyses of endophytic fungal extracts isolated from selected Nigerian medicinal plants

Ethnomedicinal plants are thought to have better prospects of harboring endophytes that produce natural products with pharmacological activities. This study aimed to investigate the antiplasmodial and anticancer properties of secondary metabolites of endophytic fungi from three medicinal plants. The endophytic fungi included Lasiodiplodia theobromae isolated from Cola acuminata, Curvularia lunata Bv4 isolated from Bambusa vulgaris, and Curvularia lunata Eg7 isolated from Elaeis guineensis. The identification of the fungi was based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS-rDNA) sequence. The fungi were subjected to solid-state fermentation and the secondary metabolites were extracted with ethyl acetate. In vitro antiplasmodial screening of extracts was performed using the SYBR green I-based fluorescence assay on the chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strain DD2. The cytotoxicity of the extracts on human red blood cells and Jurkat (leukemia) cells was assessed using the tetrazolium-based colorimetric MTT assay. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis was used to identify the constituents of the fungal extracts. The extract of L. theobromae showed the best antiplasmodial activity against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum (IC50 = 5.4 µg/mL) and was not harmful to erythrocytes (CC50 > 100 µg/mL). All three fungal extracts showed a weak cytotoxic effect against Jukart cell lines (CC50 > 100 µg/mL). GC–MS analysis of the three endophytic fungal extracts revealed the presence of forty major bioactive compounds, including: oxalic acid, isobutyl nonyl ester, 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol, and hexadecanoic acid, among others. The endophytic fungi from the medicinal plants in this study were promising sources of bioactive compounds that could be further evaluated as novel drugs for the treatment of malaria caused by P. falciparum-resistant strains.

In vitro, in vivo and in silico antiplasmodial profiling of the aqueous extract of Hibiscus asper HOOK F. Leaf (Malvaceae)

Ethnopharmacological relevancePlasmodium resistance to antimalarial drugs raises the urgent need to seek for alternative treatments. Aqueous extract of Hibiscus asper leaves is currently used in malaria management but remains less documented.Aim of the study: The study aims to evaluate antimalarial effects of the aqueous extract of Hibiscus asper. UHPLC/MS, was used to identify some likely compounds present in the plant that were thereafter docked to some malaria parasite proteins. Study designIn vitro anti-plasmodium and antioxidant, UHPLC/Ms analysis, in vivo antimalarial of the plant extract, and in silico molecular docking prediction of some identified compounds were performed to investigate the pharmacological effects of H. asper. Material and methodsThe in vitro antiplasmodial activity of the extract was carried out on Plasmodium falciparum strains using SYBR-green dye; then, the curative antimalarial activity was conducted on Plasmodium berghei NK65-infected male Wistar rats. The UHPLC/MS analysis was used to identify plant compounds, followed by interactions (docking affinity) between some compounds and parasitic enzymes such as P. falciparum purine nucleoside phosphorylase (2BSX) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6FQY) to explore potential mechanisms of action at the molecular level. ResultsNo hemolysis effect of the extract was observed at concentrations up to 100 mg/mL. In vitro test of the aqueous leaves extract of H. asper showed inhibitory activity against P. falciparum Dd2 and 3D7 strains with IC50 values of 19.75 and 21.97 μg/mL, respectively. The curative antimalarial test of the H. asper extract in infected rats exhibited significant inhibition of the parasite growth (p < 0.001) with inhibition percentage of 95.11%, 97.68% and 95.59% at all the doses (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) respectively. The extract corrected major physiological alterations such as liver and kidney impairments, oxidative stress and architectural disorganization in liver, spleen and kidneys tissues. The UHPLC/MS analysis identified 7 compounds, namely chlorogenic acid, azulene, quercetin, rhodine, 1-ethyl-2,4-dimethyl benzene and phthalan. Out of seven compounds identified in the extract quercetin and phthalan showed higher in silico inhibitory activity against P. falciparum purine nucleoside phosphorylase and Plasmodium falciparum 6-phosphosgluconate dehydrogenase parasite enzymes. ConclusionThese findings indicate that H. asper could be a promising complementary medicine to manage malaria. Meanwhile, the affinity of annoted compounds with these enzymes should be further confirmed.

Detection of naturally acquired, strain-transcending antibodies against rosetting Plasmodium falciparum strains in humans.

Strain-transcending antibodies against virulence-associated subsets of P. falciparum-infected erythrocyte surface antigens could protect children from severe malaria. However, the evidence supporting the existence of such antibodies is incomplete and inconsistent. One subset of surface antigens associated with severe malaria, rosette-mediating Plasmodium falciparum Erythrocyte Membrane Protein one (PfEMP1) variants, cause infected erythrocytes to bind to uninfected erythrocytes to form clusters of cells (rosettes) that contribute to microvascular obstruction and pathology. Here, we tested plasma from 80 individuals living in malaria-endemic regions for IgG recognition of the surface of four P. falciparum rosetting strains using flow cytometry. Broadly reactive plasma samples were then used in antibody elution experiments in which intact IgG was eluted from the surface of infected erythrocytes and transferred to heterologous rosetting strains to look for strain-transcending antibodies. We found that seroprevalence (percentage of positive plasma samples) against allopatric rosetting strains was high in adults (63%-93%) but lower in children (13%-48%). Strain-transcending antibodies were present in nine out of eleven eluted antibody experiments, with six of these recognizing multiple heterologous rosetting parasite strains. One eluate had rosette-disrupting activity against heterologous strains, suggesting PfEMP1 as the likely target of the strain-transcending antibodies. Naturally acquired strain-transcending antibodies to rosetting P. falciparum strains in humans have not been directly demonstrated previously. Their existence suggests that such antibodies could play a role in clinical protection and raises the possibility that conserved epitopes recognized by strain-transcending antibodies could be targeted therapeutically by monoclonal antibodies or vaccines.

Synthesis, molecular modelling studies of artemisinin-chalcone derivatives and their antimalarial activity evaluation

Twenty-two monomers and dimers of artemisinin having chalcone as a linker were synthesised, and their antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum was determined, and a quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) was developed. Artemisinin is a frontline antimalarial drug known worldwide but is threatened because of the rapidly emerging artemisinin-resistant strain Plasmodium falciparum. In vitro, antimalarial IC50 (half-maximal inhibitory concentration) activity of a molecule against malaria parasites provides a good first screen for identifying the antimalarial potential of a particular molecule. The most active compound was artemisinin dimer dimethoxy chalcone as a linker (22) with IC50 of 4.34 nM. The molecular mechanism was explored through in silico docking & ADMET studies for the active compounds.

Quinoline-1,2,3-triazole hybrids: Design, synthesis, antimalarial and antimicrobial evaluation

A new library of Quinoline appended 1,2,3-triazole hybrids of biotic interest was synthesized using terminal alkynes containing quinoline moiety, benzyl amine based bromides, sodium azide via click chemistry protocol and were assessed for antimalarial and antimicrobial potential. All of the synthesized triazoles were characterized using different spectral techinques viz. FTIR, 1H NMR,13C NMR and HRMS. Antimalarial activity of the synthesized quinoline-triazole hybrids against the Plasmodium falciparum strain displayed modest to good results. The synthesized compounds also reflected good antimicrobial potential against four bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli) and two fungi (Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger). Molecular docking studies and in-silico ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Elimination) analysis were also performed to check the binding and drug-likeliness of the synthesized compounds.

Development, characterization, and evaluation of withaferin-A and artesunate-loaded pH-responsive acetal-dextran polymeric nanoparticles for the management of malaria

Artemisinin and its derivatives have been commonly used to treat malaria. However, the emergence of resistance against artemisinin derivatives has posed a critical challenge in malaria management. In the present study, we have proposed a combinatorial approach, utilizing pH-responsive acetal-dextran nanoparticles (Ac-Dex NPs) as carriers for the delivery of withaferin-A (WS-3) and artesunate (Art) to improve treatment efficacy of malaria. The optimized WS-3 and Art Ac-Dex NPs demonstrated enhanced pH-responsive release profiles under parasitophorous mimetic conditions (pH 5.5). Computational molecular modeling reveals that Ac-Dex's polymeric backbone strongly interacts with merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP-1), preventing erythrocyte invasion. In-vitro antimalarial activity of drug-loaded Ac-Dex NPs reveals a 1–1.5-fold reduction in IC50 values compared to pure drug against the 3D7 strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Treatment with WS-3 Ac-Dex NPs (100 mg/kg) and Art Ac-Dex NPs (30 mg/kg) to Plasmodium berghei-infected mice resulted in 78.11 % and 100 % inhibition of parasitemia. Notably, the combination therapy comprised of Art and WS-3 Ac-Dex NPs achieved complete inhibition of parasitemia even at a half dose of Art, indicating the synergistic potential of the combinations. However, further investigations are necessary to confirm the safety and effectiveness of WS-3 and Art Ac-Dex NPs for their successful clinical implications.

The human malaria-Aotus monkey model: a historical perspective in antimalarial chemotherapy research at the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory-Panama.

The human malaria-Aotus monkey model has served the malaria research community since its inception in 1966 at the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory (GML) in Panama. Spanning over five decades, this model has been instrumental in evaluating the in vivo efficacy and pharmacokinetics of a wide array of candidate antimalarial drugs, whether used singly or in combination. The animal model could be infected with drug-resistant and susceptible Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax strains that follow a characteristic and reproducible course of infection, remarkably like human untreated and treated infections. Over the years, the model has enabled the evaluation of several synthetic and semisynthetic endoperoxides, for instance, artelinic acid, artesunate, artemether, arteether, and artemisone. These compounds have been evaluated alone and in combination with long-acting partner drugs, commonly referred to as artemisinin-based combination therapies, which are recommended as first-line treatment against uncomplicated malaria. Further, the model has also supported the evaluation of the primaquine analog tafenoquine against blood stages of P. vivax, contributing to its progression to clinical trials and eventual approval. Besides, the P. falciparum/Aotus model at GML has also played a pivotal role in exploring the biology, immunology, and pathogenesis of malaria and in the characterization of drug-resistant P. falciparum and P. vivax strains. This minireview offers a historical overview of the most significant contributions made by the Panamanian owl monkey (Aotus lemurinus lemurinus) to malaria chemotherapy research.

Stereochemical insights into enantioselective antiplasmodial lignanamides from the twigs and leaves of Solanum erianthum

Stereochemical investigations on the twigs and leaves of Solanum erianthum afforded five pairs of lignanamide enantiomers and a previously undescribed phenolic amide (3). Particularly, two pairs of previously undescribed lignanamide racemates (1a/1b–2a/2b) represent the first case of natural products that feature an unreported 5/5-fused N/O-biheterocyclic core. Their structures, including the absolute configurations, were determined unambiguously by using spectroscopic analyses and electronic circular dichroism calculations. A speculative biogenetic pathway for 1–3 was proposed. Interestingly, these lignanamides exhibited enantioselective antiplasmodial activities against drug-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 strain and chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum Dd2 strain, pointing out that chirality plays an important role in drug development.

Cu-catalyzed click reaction in synthesis of eugenol derivatives as potent antimalarial agents

Eugenol(1), a terpenoid found in Ocimum, has various biological activities. The present study aims at extraction, isolation of the plant secondary metabolite eugenol (1), it’s derivatisation and structure identification as bioactive molecules. Synthesis and antiplasmodial activity (in-vitro and in-vivo), of a series of fourteen novel eugenol-based 1,2,3-triazole derivatives was done in the present study. Derivatives 5a–5n showed good antimalarial activity against the strain Plasmodium falciparum NF54. Derivative 5 m, IC50 at 2.85 µM was found to be several times better than its precursor 1 (106.82 µM) whereas the derivative 5n showed three fold better activity than compound 1, in vitro. The structure-activity relationship of the synthesised compounds indicated that the presence of triazole ring in eugenol analogues is responsible for their good activity. Compound 5m, was further evaluated for in-vivo antimalarial activity which showed about 79% parasitemia suppression. It is the first report on antimalarial activity of triazole eugenol derivatives.

Towards development of new antimalarial compounds through in silico and in vitro assays

Malaria is one of most widespread infectious disease in world. The antimalarial therapy presents a series of limitations, such as toxicity and the emergence of resistance, which makes the search for new drugs urgent. Thus, it becomes necessary to explore essential and exclusive therapeutic targets of the parasite to achieve selective inhibition. Enoyl-ACP reductase is an enzyme of the type II fatty acid biosynthetic pathway and is responsible for the rate-limiting step in the fatty acid elongation cycle. In this work, we use hierarchical virtual screening and drug repositioning strategies to prioritize compounds for phenotypic assays and molecular dynamics studies. The molecules were tested against chloroquine-resistant W2 strain of Plasmodium falciparum (EC50 between 330.05 and 13.92 µM). Nitrofurantoin was the best antimalarial activity at low micromolar range (EC50 = 13.92 µM). However, a hit compound against malaria must have a biological activity value below 1 µM. A large number of molecules present problems with permeability in biological membranes and reaching an effective concentration in their target's microenvironment. Nitrofurantoin derivatives with inclusions of groups which confer increased lipid solubility (methyl groups, halogens and substituted and unsubstituted aromatic rings) have been proposed. These derivatives were pulled through the lipid bilayer in molecular dynamics simulations. Molecules 14, 18 and 21 presented lower free energy values than nitrofurantoin when crossing the lipid bilayer.

Chemical profiling of citrus fruit-peel and stem extracts by modified UHPLC-TOF-MS and their antiplasmodial, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities

Citrus jambhiri (Lush) and paradisi (Macf.) have wide usage as food spices. Therefore, the presence of profiled phytochemicals, the antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-plasmodial activities of the stem and fruit-peel extracts were studied. The citrus stem and fruit-peel extracts were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-qTOF/MS) and anti-plasmodial activities against chloroquine-sensitive (CQS) strain of Plasmodium falciparum, antimicrobial against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains as well as antioxidant potentials were determined in triplicate. Metabolite fingerprinting of C. jambhiri stem and C. paradisi fruit-peel extracts revealed rutamarin and spicatin respectively. The stem and fruit-peel of C. jambhiri showed moderate antimalarial activity. C. paradisi stem revealed a weak activity; however, C. paradisi fruit-peel showed no antimalarial activity (IC50 >100 μg/mL). C. paradisi and C. jambhiri extracts exhibited lower inhibition concentration (IC50: 3.0–7.0 µgmL−1), than ascorbic acid (IC50: 9.0 µgmL−1). C. paradisi stem DCM/methanol extract showed a reducing value of EC50: 8.00 µgmL−1 whereas reference compound used, (ascorbic acid) had EC50: 11.00 µgmL−1. Furthermore, C. jambhiri stem extract showed the best antimicrobial activity against the clinical isolates with high inhibition zones ≥ 15 mm. There is a paucity of information on the identification and importance of rutamarin and spicatin from Citrus extracts as a functional food ingredient with a promising compound implicated in the development of antimalarial drugs. Overall result however showed that the two citrus plants contain antioxidant constituents whereas C. jambhiri could be important source of antimicrobial agents. The study profiled two new compounds from the citrus extract and showed the potentials of the plant as source of antimalaria drug.

Phytochemical investigation, in-vitro antiplasmodial assessment and cytotoxic effect of ethanol extract of whole plant of Crotalaria arenaria (Benth)

Crotataria arenaria (Benth) is a native plant from Northern part of Nigeria which is employed as antimalarial herb in traditional medicine in the communities where it grows. The phytochemical composition, In-vitro antiplasmodial activity and in-vitro cytotoxic effect of the extract and fractions of the whole plant of Crotalaria arenaria were investigated. The mature and fresh whole plant of C. arenaria were collected, air dried and pulverized. The pulverized form of the plant were soaked in ethanol for two weeks and later decanted, filtered and concentrated using rotatory evaporator at 40oC and evaporated to dryness and labeled CRA-1. The dried ethanol solid extract (CRA-1) was patitioned/fractionated using water, chloroform, ethyl acetate, 18% aqueous methanol, n-hexane which afforded chloroform fraction (CRA-1-01), water fraction (CRA-1-02), ethyl acetate fraction (CRA-1-03) aqueous methanol fraction (CRA-1-04) and n-hexane (CRA - 1- 05) and they were dried and tested for their photochemicals and In-vitro antiplasmdial activity against Plasmodium falciparum strain (K1). The ethanol extract and its fractions were found to significantly inhibited/suppressed multi-drug resistant strain of P. falciparium (K1) in the range of 86.73% - 65.31% at varied concentrations of 5000 µg/ml, 2000 µg/ml, 1000 µg/ml and 500 µg/ml. The ethanol extract and its fractions showed the presence of tannins, saponins and alkaloids which could be responsible for the In-vitro antiplasmodial activity of the whole plant extract of C. arenaria and each of its fractions. Ethanol crude extracts of whole plant of Crotalaria arenaria and its fractions were investigated for cytotoxicity in Brine shrimp lethality Test (BSLT). Larvicidal activities were noticed with dosage concentration from 1000 µg/ml down to 10 µg/ml of the plant extract and all its fractions. The relative cytotoxic effects of extract and fractions obtained from whole plant of Crotalaria arenaria were found to be dose-dependent because higher dosage brought about an increase in mortality of Artemia salina Leach. Sea salty water of the crude ethanol extract and its fractions served as the negative control. The chloroform fraction was observed to be most cytotoxic killing 30% of brine shrimp larvae at lowest concentration of 10 µg/ml with average percentage lethality of 46.67%. Aqueous methanol and ethanol crude extract appears to show similar and closely related activities against brine shrimp larvae at highest concentration of 1000 µg/ml. The ethanol crude extract and aqueous methanol fractions are toxic at higher dosage as they were found to induce significant mortality effect (In-vitro) against Artemia salina Leach particularly at concentration of 1000 µg/ml and therefore not safe for oral consumption especially at higher uncontrolled doses but at relatively low/moderate doses. The findings in this present study demonstrated that the extract of C. arenaria (whole plant) and fractions have significant in vitro antiplasmodial activity and this has justified the traditional use of the whole plant extract of Crotaria arenaria in the folklore medicine to cure malaria related illness. The results obtained in this study may serve as key data for utilization of Crotalaria arenaria in the development of bioactive agents which could be used as antimalarial, anticancer, pesticidal, insecticidal and anti-proliferation agents. The study recommended in-vivo antiplasmodial assay of the extract of the whole plant of Crotalaria arenaria to further substantiate the findings of this present study.

Novel hydrazone compounds with broad-spectrum antiplasmodial activity and synergistic interactions with antimalarial drugs.

The development of novel antiplasmodial compounds with broad-spectrum activity against different stages of Plasmodium parasites is crucial to prevent malaria disease and parasite transmission. This study evaluated the antiplasmodial activity of seven novel hydrazone compounds (referred to as CB compounds: CB-27, CB-41, CB-50, CB-53, CB-58, CB-59, and CB-61) against multiple stages of Plasmodium parasites. All CB compounds inhibited blood stage proliferation of drug-resistant or sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum in the low micromolar to nanomolar range. Interestingly, CB-41 exhibited prophylactic activity against hypnozoites and liver schizonts in Plasmodium cynomolgi, a primate model for Plasmodium vivax. Four CB compounds (CB-27, CB-41, CB-53, and CB-61) inhibited P. falciparum oocyst formation in mosquitoes, and five CB compounds (CB-27, CB-41, CB-53, CB-58, and CB-61) hindered the in vitro development of Plasmodium berghei ookinetes. The CB compounds did not inhibit the activation of P. berghei female and male gametocytes in vitro. Isobologram assays demonstrated synergistic interactions between CB-61 and the FDA-approved antimalarial drugs, clindamycin and halofantrine. Testing of six CB compounds showed no inhibition of Plasmodium glutathione S-transferase as a putative target and no cytotoxicity in HepG2 liver cells. CB compounds are promising candidates for further development as antimalarial drugs against multidrug-resistant parasites, which could also prevent malaria transmission.

Evaluation of antiplasmodial potential of Cissampelos pareira L.: Characterization and quantification of isoquinoline alkaloids responsible for the biological activity

Globally, based on traditional knowledge, different parts of Cissampelos pareira plant are being used individually or in combination in various forms to manage malaria. However, the scientific investigation for validating the most effective part of this plant against malaria parasite has not been done. Thus, the study aims to explore the antiplasmodial potential of different parts of the plant against malaria parasite by bio-assay guided isolation of compounds from different extracts and fractions. Antiplasmodial activities of the whole plant parent extract and its fractions along with decoctions (roots, stem, leaves and whole plant) and isolated molecules were evaluated against chloroquine-sensitive Pf3D7 and chloroquine-resistant PfINDO strains of Plasmodium falciparum. A UPLC-DAD based method was developed to quantify the marker compounds in all samples by utilizing isolated molecules as analytical standards. The chloroform fraction of the whole plant was found to be the most potent with IC50 (µg/mL) of 0.79 (Pf3D7) and 2.26 (PfINDO) followed by root decoction with IC50 (µg/mL) 10.22 (Pf3D7) and 7.7 (PfINDO). Further, phytochemical analysis of active chloroform fraction led to the isolation of two potent bisbenzylisoquinoline compounds, namely O,O-dimethylcurine (1) [IC50 (µM) 1.46 (Pf3D7) and 0.51 (PfINDO)], and curine (2) [IC50 (µM) 1.46 (Pf3D7) and 0.51 (PfINDO)]. Analysis of developed UPLC-DAD method showed the highest quantities of curine (2) (∼107 mg/g) and O,O-dimethylcurine (1) (∼15 mg/g) in chloroform fraction which might be responsible for its potent activity. This study showed that the root decoction was more effective than decoctions of each of the other parts of the plant and the whole plant hydroalcoholic extract.

Dihydrostilbenes from Macaranga javanica (Blume) Müll. Arg. and their antiplasmodial activity

An undescribed dihydrostilbene, macajavanicin D (1), and three known analogs, malayheyneiin A (2) and laevifolins A-B (3-4), were isolated from Macaranga javanica (Blume) Müll. Arg. leaves. Macajavanicin D (1) structure was determined based on a combination of ESI-HRMS data and NMR spectra. Compounds 1-4 were evaluated to Plasmodium falciparum strain 3D7. Macajavanicins D (1) and laevifolin A (3) showed potent activity with an IC50 value of 0.85 and 1.03 µg/mL, respectively.

Unveiling the antimalarial properties of Terminalia ivorensis (A. Chev) stem bark aqueous extract: In vivo efficacy testing and in silico predictions

Due to the spreading resistance to antimalarial drugs, new therapeutics are urgently needed, preferably with novel modes of action. Extracts from Terminalia ivorensis have previously been shown to possess activity in vitro against multidrug-resistant and drug-sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum. However, to the best of our knowledge, no scientific study has been published describing the antimalarial potential of these extracts through in vivo efficacy testing. This study aimed to determine the safety and antimalarial efficacy of the T. ivorensis stem bark aqueous extract (TiH2O) in a mouse model using the OECD 423 protocol and the suppressive and curative murine malaria models, and to predict in silico the pharmacokinetic properties and drug-likeness of two major phytochemical constituents. The in vivo antimalarial efficacy was assessed using the P. berghei NK65-infected mice. The TiH2O treatment impact on biochemical parameters was measured using established standard procedures. The pharmacokinetics prediction was achieved through the pkCSM predictor and Swiss ADME. The TiH2O extract was nontoxic in BALB/c mice at a lethal dose of 50 (LD50) &gt; 2000 mg/kg. The TiH2O extract displayed strong antimalarial efficacy with 100% parasitemia suppression at 200 mg/kg b.w. after 4 days of treatment while its oral administration at 400 mg/kg b.w. in the curative model significantly decreased P. berghei parasitemia by 94.07% with a median efficacy dose (ED50) of 96.80 mg/kg. The administration of TiH2O extract restored the histological parameters disrupted by P. berghei, and the transaminase (ALT and AST) activity, creatinine, and bilirubin levels significantly decreased compared to the negative control mice. In silico explorations showed that the main constituents leucodelphidin (leucodelphinidin) and ellagic acid of the TiH2O extract have drug-like properties, thus indicating that T. ivorensis might constitute a promising source of antimalarial chemical entities with good pharmacokinetics and drug-like properties. The results obtained further corroborated the preliminary in vitro antiplasmodial studies of T. ivorensis stem bark aqueous extract. The metabolome of TiH2O extract should be further profiled in the prospects of characterizing novel natural product scaffolds to support antimalarial drug discovery.

Plasmodium falciparum heat shock proteins as antimalarial drug targets: An update.

Global efforts to eradicate malaria are threatened by multiple factors, particularly the emergence of antimalarial drug resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Heat shock proteins (HSPs), particularly P. falciparum HSPs (PfHSPs), represent promising drug targets due to their essential roles in parasite survival and virulence across the various life cycle stages. Despite structural similarities between human and malarial HSPs posing challenges, there is substantial evidence for subtle differences that could be exploited for selective drug targeting. This review provides an update on the potential of targeting various PfHSP families (particularly PfHSP40, PfHSP70, and PfHSP90) and their interactions within PfHSP complexes as a strategy to develop new antimalarial drugs. In addition, the need for a deeper understanding of the role of HSP complexes at the host-parasite interface is highlighted, especially heterologous partnerships between human and malarial HSPs, as this opens novel opportunities for targeting protein-protein interactions crucial for malaria parasite survival and pathogenesis.

Antiplasmodial potential of phytochemicals from Citrus aurantifolia peels: a comprehensive in vitro and in silico study

Phytochemical investigation of Key lime (Citrus aurantifolia L., F. Rutaceae) peels afforded six metabolites, known as methyl isolimonate acetate (1), limonin (2), luteolin (3), 3ˋ-hydroxygenkwanin (4), myricetin (5), and europetin (6). The structures of the isolated compounds were assigned by 1D NMR. In the case of limonin (2), further 1- and 2D NMR experiments were done to further confirm the structure of this most active metabolite. The antiplasmodial properties of the obtained compounds against the pathogenic NF54 strain of Plasmodium falciparum were assessed in vitro. According to antiplasmodial screening, only limonin (2), luteolin (3), and myricetin (5) were effective (IC50 values of 0.2, 3.4, and 5.9 µM, respectively). We explored the antiplasmodial potential of phytochemicals from C. aurantifolia peels using a stepwise in silico-based analysis. We first identified the unique proteins of P. falciparum that have no homolog in the human proteome, and then performed inverse docking, ΔGBinding calculation, and molecular dynamics simulation to predict the binding affinity and stability of the isolated compounds with these proteins. We found that limonin (2), luteolin (3), and myricetin (5) could interact with 20S a proteasome, choline kinase, and phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase, respectively, which are important enzymes for the survival and growth of the parasite. According to our findings, phytochemicals from C. aurantifolia peels can be considered as potential leads for the development of new safe and effective antiplasmodial agents.

Investigating the impact of solvation on p-Phenylenediamine - 2-Amino pyrimidine - Formaldehyde Terpolymer (P2APF) ligand's reactivity and drug suitability for malaria treatment: Insights from experimental and quantum calculations

This study aims at investigating the drug potential of p-Phenylenediamine – 2-Amino Pyrimidine – Formaldehyde terpolymer (P2APF) ligand against drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Plasmodium falciparum, an embodiment of cunning among malaria parasites, thrives in regions plagued by rampant mosquito transmission, subpar vector control, and limited access to effective treatments. To this end, this study explored the structural properties of the p-Phenylenediamine – 2-Amino Pyrimidine – Formaldehyde terpolymer (P2APF) ligand, (comprising p-Phenylenediamine, 2-Aminopyrimidine, and Formaldehyde) as a drug potent ligand against the common proteins coding for malaria infection. Various spectroscopic techniques such as FT-IR, UV–visible, and NMR (1H & 13C) spectroscopy were employed both experimentally and theoretically. Additionally, the ligand's surface morphology was investigated using scanning electron microscopy. To comprehend the influence of solvation, theoretical investigations utilizing density functional theory (DFT) at the B3LYPD(BJ)/6-311G++G (2d,2p) level were conducted in DMSO, water, and methanol solvents. The results from the frontier molecular orbital (FMO) analysis provided valuable insights into the electronic properties and solvation effects of P2APF. Specifically, the calculated energy gap of 3.671 eV for P2APF_methanol and 3.672 eV for P2APF_DMSO suggested these solvents as promising environments for reactivity and interactions. Molecular docking studies unveiled the most notable binding affinity between P2APF and the 5UMB chaperone protein receptor, exhibiting a binding affinity of -7.3 kcal/mol on serine and aspartic acid residues, with an average bond distance of 2.25 Å. This robust protein-ligand interaction signifies the promising potential of the P2APF ligand in targeting this specific receptor, thereby combating drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum for the present and the future.

New antimalarial iromycin analogs produced by Streptomyces sp. RBL-0292.

Two new antimalarial compounds, named prenylpyridones A (1) and B (2), were discovered from the actinomycete cultured material of Streptomyces sp. RBL-0292 isolated from the soil on Hamahiga Island in Okinawa prefecture. The structures of 1 and 2 were elucidated as new iromycin analogs having α-pyridone ring by MS and NMR analyses. Compounds 1 and 2 showed moderate in vitro antimalarial activity against chloroquine-sensitive and chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains, with IC50 values ranging from 80.7 to 106.7 µM.