Trafficking Of Storage Proteins Research Articles

Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Potential Mechanism in Storage Protein Trafficking within Developing Grains of Common Wheat

Gluten proteins are the major storage protein fraction in the mature wheat grain. They are restricted to the starchy endosperm, which defines the viscoelastic properties of wheat dough. The synthesis of these storage proteins is controlled by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is directed into the vacuole via the Golgi apparatus. In the present study, transcriptome analysis was used to explore the potential mechanism within critical stages of grain development of wheat cultivar "Shaannong 33" and its sister line used as the control (CK). Samples were collected at 10 DPA (days after anthesis), 14 DPA, 20 DPA, and 30 DPA for transcriptomic analysis. The comparative transcriptome analysis identified that a total of 18,875 genes were differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between grains of four groups "T10 vs. CK10, T14 vs. CK14, T20 vs. CK20, and T30 vs. CK30", including 2824 up-regulated and 5423 down-regulated genes in T30 vs. CK30. Further, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment highlighted the maximum number of genes regulating protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) during grain enlargement stages (10-20 DPA). In addition, KEGG database analysis reported 1362 and 788 DEGs involved in translation, ribosomal structure, biogenesis, flavonoid biosynthesis pathway and intracellular trafficking, secretion, and vesicular transport through protein processing within ER pathway (ko04141). Notably, consistent with the higher expression of intercellular storage protein trafficking genes at the initial 10 DPA, there was relatively low expression at later stages. Expression levels of nine randomly selected genes were verified by qRT-PCR, which were consistent with the transcriptome data. These data suggested that the initial stages of "cell division" played a significant role in protein quality control within the ER, thus maintaining the protein quality characteristics at grain maturity. Furthermore, our data suggested that the protein synthesis, folding, and trafficking pathways directed by a different number of genes during the grain enlargement stage contributed to the observed high-quality characteristics of gluten protein in Shaannong 33 (Triticum aestivum L.).

Endomembrane-mediated storage protein trafficking in plants: Golgi-dependent or Golgi-independent?

Seed storage proteins (SSPs) accumulated within plant seeds constitute the major protein nutrition sources for human and livestock. SSPs are synthesized on the endoplasmic reticulum and are then deposited in plant-specific protein bodies, including endoplasmic reticulum-derived protein bodies and protein storage vacuoles. Plant seeds have evolved a distinct endomembrane system to accomplish SSP transport. There are two distinct types of trafficking pathways contributing to SSP delivery to protein storage vacuoles: one is Golgi-dependent and the other is Golgi-independent. In recent years, molecular, genetic, and biochemical studies have shed light on the complex network controlling SSP trafficking, to which both evolutionarily conserved molecular machineries and plant-unique regulators contribute. In this review, we discuss current knowledge of protein body biogenesis and endomembrane-mediated SSP transport, focusing on endoplasmic reticulum export and post-Golgi traffic. This knowledge supports a dominant role for the Golgi-dependent pathways in SSP transport in Arabidopsis and rice. In addition, we describe cutting-edge strategies for dissecting the endomembrane trafficking system in plant seeds to advance the field.

GmGPA3 is involved in post-Golgi trafficking of storage proteins and cell growth in soybean cotyledons

As the major nutritional component in soybean seeds storage proteins are initially synthesized on the endoplasmic reticulum as precursors and subsequently delivered to protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) via the Golgi-mediated pathway where they are converted into mature subunits and accumulated. However, the molecular machinery required for storage protein trafficking in soybean remains largely unknown. In this study, we cloned the sole soybean homolog of OsGPA3 that encodes a plant-unique kelch-repeat regulator of post-Golgi vesicular traffic for rice storage protein sorting. A complementation test showed that GmGPA3 could rescue the rice gpa3 mutant. Biochemical assays verified that GmGPA3 physically interacts with GmRab5 and its guanine exchange factor (GEF) GmVPS9. Expression of GmGPA3 had no obvious effect on the GEF activity of GmVPS9 toward GmRab5a. Notably, knock-down of GmGPA3 disrupted the trafficking of mmRFP-CT10 (an artificial cargo destined for PSVs) in developing soybean cotyledons. We identified two putative GmGPA3 interacting partners (GmGMG3 and GmGMG11) by screening a yeast cDNA library. Overexpression of GmGPA3 or GmGMG3 caused shrunken cotyledon cells. Our overall results suggested that GmGPA3 plays an important role in cell growth and development, in addition to its conserved role in mediating storage protein trafficking in soybean cotyledons.

GPA5 Encodes a Rab5a Effector Required for Post-Golgi Trafficking of Rice Storage Proteins.

Dense vesicles (DVs) are vesicular carriers, unique to plants, that mediate post-Golgi trafficking of storage proteins to protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) in seeds. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating the directional targeting of DVs to PSVs remain elusive. Here, we show that the rice (Oryza sativa) glutelin precursor accumulation5 (gpa5) mutant is defective in directional targeting of DVs to PSVs, resulting in discharge of its cargo proteins into the extracellular space. Molecular cloning revealed that GPA5 encodes a plant-unique phox-homology domain-containing protein homologous to Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) ENDOSOMAL RAB EFFECTOR WITH PX-DOMAIN. We show that GPA5 is a membrane-associated protein capable of forming homodimers and that it is specifically localized to DVs in developing endosperm. Colocalization, biochemical, and genetic evidence demonstrates that GPA5 acts in concert with Rab5a and VPS9a to regulate DV-mediated post-Golgi trafficking to PSVs. Furthermore, we demonstrated that GPA5 physically interacts with a class C core vacuole/endosome tethering complex and a seed plant-specific VAMP727-containing R-soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor attachment protein receptor complex. Collectively, our results suggest that GPA5 functions as a plant-specific effector of Rab5a required for mediating tethering and membrane fusion of DVs with PSVs in rice endosperm.

The small GTPase Rab5a and its guanine nucleotide exchange factors are involved in post-Golgi trafficking of storage proteins in developing soybean cotyledon.

Storage protein is the most abundant nutritional component in soybean seed. Morphology-based evidence has verified that storage proteins are initially synthesized on the endoplasmic reticulum, and then follow the Golgi-mediated pathway to the protein storage vacuole. However, the molecular mechanisms of storage protein trafficking in soybean remain unknown. Here, we clone the soybean homologs of Rab5 and its guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) VPS9. GEF activity combined with yeast two-hybrid assays demonstrated that GmVPS9a2 might specifically act as the GEF of the canonical Rab5, while GmVPS9b functions as a common activator for all Rab5s. Subcellular localization experiments showed that GmRab5a was dually localized to the trans-Golgi network and pre-vacuolar compartments in developing soybean cotyledon cells. Expression of a dominant negative variant of Rab5a, or RNAi of either Rab5a or GmVPS9s, significantly disrupted trafficking of mRFP-CT10, a cargo marker for storage protein sorting, to protein storage vacuoles in maturing soybean cotyledons. Together, our results systematically revealed the important role of GmRab5a and its GEFs in storage protein trafficking, and verified the transient expression system as an efficient approach for elucidating storage protein trafficking mechanisms in seed.

OsNHX5-mediated pH homeostasis is required for post-Golgi trafficking of seed storage proteins in rice endosperm cells

BackgroundAs the major storage protein in rice seeds, glutelins are synthesized at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as proglutelins and transported to protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) called PBIIs (Protein body IIs), where they are cleaved into mature forms by the vacuolar processing enzymes. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying glutelin trafficking are largely unknown.ResultsIn this study, we report a rice mutant, named glutelin precursor accumulation6 (gpa6), which abnormally accumulates massive proglutelins. Cytological analyses revealed that in gpa6 endosperm cells, proglutelins were mis-sorted, leading to the presence of dense vesicles (DVs) and the formation paramural bodies (PMBs) at the apoplast, consequently, smaller PBII were observed. Mutated gene in gpa6 was found to encode a Na+/H+ antiporter, OsNHX5. OsNHX5 is expressed in all tissues analyzed, and its expression level is much higher than its closest paralog OsNHX6. The OsNHX5 protein colocalizes to the Golgi, the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and the pre-vacuolar compartment (PVC) in tobacco leaf epidermal cells. In vivo pH measurements indicated that the lumens of Golgi, TGN and PVC became more acidic in gpa6.ConclusionsOur results demonstrated an important role of OsNHX5 in regulating endomembrane luminal pH, which is essential for seed storage protein trafficking in rice.

OsVPS9A Functions Cooperatively with OsRAB5A to Regulate Post-Golgi Dense Vesicle-Mediated Storage Protein Trafficking to the Protein Storage Vacuole in Rice Endosperm Cells

In the rice endosperm cells, glutelins are synthesized on rough endoplasmic reticulum as proglutelins and are sorted to the protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) called protein body IIs (PBIIs), where they are converted to the mature forms. Dense vesicle (DV)-mediated trafficking of proglutelins in rice seeds has been proposed, but the post-Golgi control of this process is largely unknown. Whether DV can fuse directly with PSV is another matter of debate. In this study, we propose a regulatory mechanism underlying DV-mediated, post-Golgi proglutelin trafficking to PBII (PSV). gpa2, a loss-of-function mutant of OsVPS9A, which encodes a GEF of OsRAB5A, accumulated uncleaved proglutelins. Proglutelins were mis-targeted to the paramural bodies and to the apoplast along the cell wall in the form of DVs, which led to a concomitant reduction in PBII size. Previously reported gpa1, mutated in OsRab5a, has a similar phenotype, while gpa1gpa2 double mutant exacerbated the conditions. In addition, OsVPS9A interacted with OsRAB5A in vitro and in vivo. We concluded that OsVPS9A and OsRAB5A may work together and play a regulatory role in DV-mediated post-Golgi proglutelin trafficking to PBII (PSV). The evidence that DVs might fuse directly to PBII (PSV) to deliver cargos is also presented.

OsRab5a regulates endomembrane organization and storage protein trafficking in rice endosperm cells

Rice glutelins are synthesized at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as precursors (pro-glutelins), and are transported to protein storage vacuoles, where they are processed into mature proteins. The molecular basis of this process is largely unknown. Here, we report the isolation of a rice mutant, gpa1, that accumulates 57 kDa pro-glutelins in seeds and whose endosperm has a floury appearance. Transmission electron microscopy analysis showed that the gpa1 endosperm cells have an enlarged ER lumen and a smaller protein body II (PBII), and accumulated three types of newly generated subcellular structures. Moreover, a proportion of glutelins in the gpa1 endosperm cells were not delivered to PBII, and instead were mis-targeted to two of the newly generated structures or secreted. The gene corresponding to the gpa1 mutation was found to be OsRab5a, which encodes a small GTPase. In Arabidopsis protoplasts, OsRab5a protein was found to co-localize predominantly with AtVSR2, a molecular marker for the pre-vacuolar compartments (PVC). We conclude that OsRab5a plays an essential role in trafficking of storage protein to PBII, possibly as part of its function in organizing the endomembrane system in developing endosperm cells of rice.

Immunolocalization indicates plasmodesmal trafficking of storage proteins during cambial reactivation in Populus nigra

Cambium reactivation after dormancy and budbreak in deciduous trees requires a supply of mobilized reserve materials. The pathway and mode of transfer of these materials are poorly understood. Transport of reserve materials during cambium reactivation in Populus nigra was investigated by conventional and immunocytochemical TEM analyses, SDS-PAGE, western blotting and intracellular microinjection of fluorescent dyes. Proteinaceous compounds stored in vacuoles and protein bodies of vascular cells and ray cells disappeared within 3 weeks after cambial reactivation and budbreak. Some of these proteins (32 kDa, 30 kDa and 15 kDa) were labelled by lectin antibodies in SDS-PAGE. The same antibodies were localized to plasmodesmata (PDs) between phloem parenchyma, ray cells and fusiform cambial cells. In addition, proteinaceous particles were localized inside the cytoplasmic sleeves of these PDs during budbreak. During this period, the functional diameter of PDs was about 2.2 nm which corresponds approximately to the Stokes' radius of the detected 15-kDa protein. Lectin-like reserve proteins or their degradation products seem to be transferred through PDs of phloem parenchyma and rays during cambial reactivation and budbreak. PD transfer of storage proteins is a novelty which supports the concept of symplasmic nutrient supply to the cambial region.

Trafficking of storage proteins in developing grain of wheat

The processing properties of the wheat flour are largely determined by the structures and interactions of the grain storage proteins (also called gluten proteins) which form a continuous visco-elastic network in dough. Wheat gluten proteins are classically divided into two groups, the monomeric gliadins and the polymeric glutenins, with the latter being further classified into low molecular weight (LMW) and high molecular weight (HMW) subunits. The synthesis, folding and deposition of the gluten proteins take place within the endomembrane system of the plant cell. However, determination of the precise routes of trafficking and deposition of individual gluten proteins in developing wheat grain has been limited in the past by the difficulty of developing monospecific antibodies. To overcome this limitation, a single gluten protein (a LMW subunit) was expressed in transgenic wheat with a C-terminal epitope tag, allowing the protein to be located in the cells of the developing grain using highly specific antibodies. This approach was also combined with the use of wider specificity antibodies to compare the trafficking and deposition of different gluten protein groups within the same endosperm cells. These studies are in agreement with previous suggestions that two trafficking pathways occur in wheat, with the proteins either being transported via the Golgi apparatus into the vacuole or accumulating directly within the lumen of the ER. They also suggest that the same individual protein could be trafficked by either pathway, possibly depending on the stage of development, and that segregation of gluten proteins both between and within protein bodies may occur.

Cosuppression of the alpha subunits of beta-conglycinin in transgenic soybean seeds induces the formation of endoplasmic reticulum-derived protein bodies.

The expression of the alpha and alpha' subunits of beta-conglycinin was suppressed by sequence-mediated gene silencing in transgenic soybean seed. The resulting seeds had similar total oil and protein content and ratio compared with the parent line. The decrease in beta-conglycinin protein was apparently compensated by an increased accumulation of glycinin. In addition, proglycinin, the precursor of glycinin, was detected as a prominent polypeptide band in the protein profile of the transgenic seed extract. Electron microscopic analysis and immunocytochemistry of maturing transgenic soybean seeds indicated that the process of storage protein accumulation was altered in the transgenic line. In normal soybeans, the storage proteins are deposited in pre-existing vacuoles by Golgi-derived vesicles. In contrast, in transgenic seed with reduced beta-conglycinin levels, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-derived vesicles were observed that resembled precursor accumulating-vesicles of pumpkin seeds and the protein bodies accumulated by cereal seeds. Their ER-derived membrane of the novel vesicles did not contain the protein storage vacuole tonoplast-specific protein alpha-TIP, and the sequestered polypeptides did not contain complex glycans, indicating a preGolgi and nonvacuolar nature. Glycinin was identified as a major component of these novel protein bodies and its diversion from normal storage protein trafficking appears to be related to the proglycinin buildup in the transgenic seed. The stable accumulation of proteins in a protein body compartment instead of vacuolar accumulation of proteins may provide an alternative intracellular site to sequester proteins when soybeans are used as protein factories.