Pores Of Stone Research Articles

New water-based hybrid materials for the protection against water and consolidation of stone monuments

This research aims to develop a multifunctional, water-based product for protecting and consolidating stone materials. A new synthesis strategy using water-diluted silane formulations, composed of TEOS and an alkyl monomeric silane (ETES) or a polymeric siloxane (PDMS), homogenized by ultrasonic irradiation was followed to produce hybrid networks and overcome the limitations of current hydrophobic consolidants.These formulations gave rise to low dry residues and hydrophobic surfaces on various stones, including on low and high porosity stone varieties. Despite some formulations originated cracked films, optimal concentrations of ETES and PDMS showed high protection levels against capillary water absorption with minimal impacts on the color and water vapor permeability of the stones. Besides demonstrating the initial efficacy of these new hybrid materials in modifying the inherent hydrophilic and water-absorbing properties of stones, this work further confirmed their ability to penetrate within the stone pores and their initial efficacy in consolidating porous stones.Thus, new water-based multifunctional hybrid materials capable of consolidating and protecting various types of stones from water-related damage have been developed. These novel materials align with both technical and environmental requirements.

New insight of solvent-replacement-induced damage to pores of cement stone by comparison with 1H NMR relaxometry, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and nitrogen adsorption

The consensus on the damage to pore structure of cement-based materials caused by solvent-displacement-drying method has yet not been achieved. This work explored the effect of replacing pore water with ethanol, methanol, isopropanol, cyclohexane and acetone on the pore parameters of hardened white cement paste by means of low field NMR, mercury intrusion porosimetry and nitrogen adsorption techniques, with direct-drying (oven-drying and vacuum-drying) as the control. The results show that the degree of damage to the pore structure after secondary-solvent-replacement is close to that of direct- drying in terms of porosity, total pore area, characteristic pore size and pore size distribution. The difference of pore parameters of samples dried by different solvent-displacement is caused by the physical properties of solvents and the reaction with hydration products. Furthermore, thermal analysis results have confirmed the reaction between acetone and hydration products to generate a dark brown substance. If the possible chemical reaction between organic solvents and hydration products is not considered, the pore structure of cement stone can be well protected by replacing pore water with methanol.

EXAMINATION OF NEW GROWTHS IN MODIFIED SULFATE-BASED COMPOSITES BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

The structure of a gypsum matrix, which is characterized by the size, shape, and morphology of crystals, the state of the interfacial surface, and the number and strength of contacts between new growths, determines the basic physical and technical properties of materials. The effect of various modifiers, mainly of technogenic origin, on the gypsum stone structure has been examined by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. In the study, building gypsum and metallurgical dust, granulated blast furnace slag, and siltstone mineral modifiers have been used. It has been established that the introduction of modifiers improves the physical and mechanical properties of a binder. This is probably due to the fact that the additives act as crystallization centers during the matrix structure formation and facilitate filling of the stone pore space.

Effect of air stone pore size and gas flow rate on the recovery efficiency of paclitaxel from biomass in gas bubble-assisted extraction

Effect of air stone pore size and gas flow rate on the recovery efficiency of paclitaxel from biomass in gas bubble-assisted extraction

АНАЛІЗ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ ЗАСТОСУВАННЯ МІГРУЮЧИХ ІНГІБІТОРІВ КОРОЗІЇ (МІК) ДЛЯ ПІДВИЩЕННЯ ЕКСПЛУАТАЦІЙНОЇ ДОВГОВІЧНОСТІ ЗАЛІЗОБЕТОНУ

Currently, concrete and reinforced concrete structures are an indispensable component of any construction. However, during operation due to the active influence of aggressive components of the atmosphere and the environment, there is a destruction of the protective layer of concrete and corrosion of metal reinforcement.The porous structure of cement stone, which is the basis of concrete, determines the degree of its hydration and, accord-ingly, penetration into it together with moisture aggressive components of the environment (various chlorides, sulfates, carbon dioxide, etc.). The latter leads to a change in the pH of the pore fluid and the development of low destructive processes in the structure of the concrete and metal reinforcement.The detailed analysis of the situation showed that the most favorable conditions, in terms of complete coverage in scien-tific journals, have developed around primary corrosion protection of reinforced concrete structures, which consists in the use of corrosion inhibitors (substances based on various amino compounds, salts of benzoic acids and nitrites of benzoate compo-sitions) at the stage of manufacturing reinforced concrete structures and products from them. The secondary protection of reinforced concrete structures that have been in operation for some time with the use of migrating inhibitor mixtures with good passivation ability and diffusion permeability is less studied, but very relevant.However, to date, there is still no systematic material on the mechanism of their protective action and the effective ratio of molar concentrations of their individual components despite the large number of publications on thedevelopment of migrat-ing corrosion inhibitors as corrosion protection of reinforcing elements of reinforced concrete structures,.In this regard, the purpose of this work is to determine the mechanism for ensuring effective corrosion resistance of metal elements of reinforced concrete structures with the use of migrating corrosion inhibitors.It is shown that the effectiveness of migrating corrosion inhibitors will be determined not only by the nature of its com-ponents, but also by the ratio of concentrations of its passivators of anodic and cathodic reactions, as well as the adsorption component. Monoethanolamine and triethanolamine have been found to be typical surfactants with low surface tension with a satisfactory ability to passivate cathodic reactions, while NaNO2 serves as a passivator for the anodic reaction of steel ioni-zation. The results show that the most effective anticorrosive effect is provided by mixtures with equal ratio of concentrations of adsorption and corrosion inhibiting components (15TEA + 15NaNO2 and 15MEA + 15NaNO2, respectively).Thus, research in the field of corrosion protection of reinforced concrete structures that have been in operation for some time has identified promising ways to develop migratory corrosion inhibitors, mainly related to the creation of synergistic composite compounds that will contain adsorption and passivation components. The effectiveness of inhibitory compositions, which include surfactants based on amine-type compounds, which in combination with sodium nitrites are able to penetrate into the pores of cement stone, reaching the metal reinforcement to inhibit both existing corrosion centers and prevent its occurrence in the future.

Calcitic-based stones protection by a low-fluorine modified methacrylic coating

Atmospheric pollutants, such as NOx, SO2, and particulate matter, together with water percolation inside the stone pores, represent the main causes of cultural heritage decay. In order to avoid these undesired phenomena, the application of protective coatings represents a reliable solution. In this context, the present study focused on the synthesis of low-fluorine content methacrylic-based (MMA) polymeric resins characterized by seven F atoms (namely F7 monomer) in the lateral chains. Four different percentages (1.0, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0%) of the present monomer were adopted to obtain a final polymeric structure showing the desired hydrophobicity, processability, and structural and thermal stability (even after accelerated UV aging tests). MMA_F7(1.0) seemed to be the optimal one; therefore, it was further applied onto Candoglia marble. Specifically, the treated substrates showed good surface hydrophobicity, water repellency, and water vapor transpirability. No color variation was observed even after a 1.5-year exposure in a real polluted environment (Monza Cathedral). Interestingly, the application of this coating hindered the atmospheric nitrates penetration inside the stones and, at the same time, it limited the sulfates (gypsum) formation, thus revealing a very promising marbles protection resin.

Filtration performance of geotextile encasement to minimize the clogging of stone column during soil liquefaction

Stone columns, which are frequently employed to stabilize the liquefiable soil, are susceptible to accumulation of soil particles. The progressive accumulation of the soil particles causes clogging of the stone column which decreases its drainage capacity. The stone column can be encased with geotextile to sustain its long term drainage function. The encasement prevents the movement of the soil particles into the stone pores. In the present paper, a mathematical model is presented to assess the filtration performance of the geotextile encasement to prevent the clogging. The filtration capacity of the geotextile is related to its maximum pore size, porosity and soil characteristics. It is observed that the encased stone column dissipates the excess pore pressure at a faster rate compared to the stone column without encasement. The peak maximum excess pore water pressure (Umax) is not significantly affected due to selection of the opening size of the geotextiles for single earthquake. However, the opening size can significantly affect the peak Umax value for multiple earthquakes. Depending on the capture coefficient of the stone column, the clogging can be fully prevented for higher hydraulic gradient if geotextile with maximum opening size in between D10 to D5 is used as encasement.

Artificial Ageing of Photocatalytic Nanocomposites for the Protection of Natural Stones

During the last ten years, photocatalytic nanocomposites combining titania nanoparticles with silicon-based matrices have received increasing attention in the stone conservation research field, because they offer an effective multifunctional approach to the issue of stone protection. However, much work still has to be done in studying the behaviour of these nanocomposites in real environmental conditions and understanding to what extent they are able to retain their effectiveness and compatibility once applied on outdoor surfaces. The latter is a key information that should lie at the basis of any successful conservation and maintenance campaign. The present study provides insight into this relevant topic trough laboratory testing by assessing the artificial ageing of two silane-based photocatalytic nanocomposites, previously selected through an accurate testing on different natural stones. Three accelerated ageing procedures, based on artificial solar irradiation, heating and rain wash-out, allowed simulating about two years of outdoor exposure to some of the weathering factors to which stones are normally subjected. The results provided quite accurate information about the long-term behaviour of the products and on the role that the stone properties play therein. It was shown that, when the products are able to penetrate deeply enough inside the stone pores, they retain much of their hydrophobising and photocatalytic properties and maintain a good compatibility with the stone substrates, even after partial chemical degradation of the alkyl-silica matrices has occurred on the very stone surface.

Structure formation of plasticized cement systems under heat-moisture treatment

Reducing the water-cement ratio is successfully achieved using superplasticizers (SP). However, their use can reduce the early strength of concrete and reinforced concrete. Heat-moisture treatment (HMT) is the leading way to accelerate concrete strength. The use of the latest SP based on polycarboxylate esters (PCE) allows adjusting the HMT mode, in particular, to reduce the presteaming period duration. The structure formation of cement pastes was studied depending on PCE modification and the presteaming period duration. The authors show PCE effectiveness in terms of reducing the water-cement ratio and joint action with HMT. It was found that the most effective use of low PCE dosages when using HMT. Increasing the amount of introduced SP to 1.2-2.0 % doesn’t lead to significant changes in initial and final setting times of cement pastes. The results of the study of cement stone compressive strength after HMT and on the 28th day, also the density and capillary porosity revealed a slight deterioration of these physical and mechanical properties (up to 5-10 %) when the presteaming period was abandoned. The results of X-Ray Diffraction analysis indicate no significant differences in the mineralogical composition of cement stone, which hardened at the HMT with the presteaming period of 2 hours and without it. The study of the cement stone microstructure showed that the PCE introduction in cement pastes contributes to the stone structure compaction and reduction of the number of pores. There were no significant changes in the cement stone pore structure, depending on the presteaming period duration. The conducted research shows that it is possible to regulate the HMT modes for the hardening of cement systems with SP.

Modified Ethylsilicates as Efficient Innovative Consolidants for Sedimentary Rock

Although silicon alkoxides (especially ethylsilicates) have long been used as consolidants of weathered stone monuments, their physical properties are not ideal. In this study, an innovative procedure for the consolidation of sedimentary rocks was developed that combines the use of organometallic and alkylamine catalysts with the addition of well-defined nanoparticles exhibiting a narrow size distribution centered at ca. 10 nm. As a suitable test material, Pietra di Lecce limestone was selected because of its color and problematic physico-chemical properties, such as rather low hardness. Using the developed procedure, the mechanical and surface properties of the limestone were improved without the unwanted over-consolidation of the surface layers of the stone, and any significant deterioration in the pore size distribution, water vapor permeability, or the stone’s appearance. The developed modified ethylsilicates penetrated deeper into the pore structure of the stone than the unmodified ones and increased the hardness of the treated material. The formed xerogels within the stone pores did not crack. Importantly, they did not significantly alter the natural characteristics of the stone.

Alkoxysilane-based sols for consolidation of carbonate stones: Impact of the carbonate medium in the sol-gel processes

Abstract This investigation addresses the impact of the carbonate medium in the sol-gel processes of stone consolidants and the possible detrimental effects in practical applications. The results demonstrate that the carbonate medium influences the sol-gel paths and that silicate materials developed in the carbonate stone pores can be structurally different from those formed within “inert” conditions, as a consequence of the combined effect of pH and ionic interactions between Si-O− and Ca2+. The trend is that the formation of the silica films around stone grains (silica growth mechanism through typical condensation) evolves into less advantageous growth processes (Oswald ripening and/or coagulation), resulting in a material that is unlikely to consolidate carbonate stone. Furthermore, pH measurements and different ratios between NMR Q3:Q4 species along stone depth showed that this effect seems more important at greater depths. The results underline the importance of the carbonate medium in the failure of alkoxysilane-based treatments and, accordingly, that an efficient design and development of new alkoxysilane-based consolidants must consider this effect.

Effect of Waterproofing Penetrating Capillary Mixture on Concrete Waterproofness and Cement Stone Microstructure

Results are provided for a study of concrete waterproofness, structure, and properties of cement stone treated with penetrating water insulation system Penetron. It is shown that formation of waterproofed concrete facilitates formation within cement stone pores of an additional amount of low-basicity calcium hydrosilicate of acicular shape and also calcite.

Preparation of Water Suspensions of Nanocalcite for Cultural Heritage Applications.

The consolidation of degraded carbonate stone used in ancient monuments is an important topic for European cultural heritage conservation. The products most frequently used as consolidants are based on tetraalkoxy- or alkylalkoxy-silanes (in particular tetraethyl-orthosilicate, TEOS), resulting in the formation of relatively stable amorphous silica or alkylated (hydrophobic) silica inside the stone pores. However, silica is not chemically compatible with carbonate stones; in this respect, nanocalcite may be a suitable alternative. The present work concerns the preparation of water suspensions of calcite nanoparticles (CCNPs) by controlled carbonation of slaked lime using a pilot-scale reactor. A simplified design of experiment was adopted for product optimization. Calcite nanoparticles of narrow size distribution averaging about 30 nm were successfully obtained, the concentration of the interfacial agent and the size of CaO being the most critical parameters. Primary nanoparticle aggregation causing flocculation could be substantially prevented by the addition of polymeric dispersants. Copolymer-based dispersants were produced in situ by controlled heterophase polymerisation mediated by an amphiphilic macro-RAFT (reversible addition-fragmentation transfer) agent. The stabilized CCNP aqueous dispersions were then applied on carbonate and silicate substrates; Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)analysis of cross-sections allowed the evaluation of pore penetration, interfacial binding, and bridging (gap-filling) properties of these novel consolidants.

Differential thermal expansion as a cause of salt decay: literature review, experiments, and modelling of micro and macro effects on Ançã limestone

Salt decay is one of the harshest, most frequent, and more complex types of decay of porous materials in built heritage, including natural stones, ceramics, and mortars. In this article, we address the mechanism of thermal expansion, which is one of the least studied, yet most controversial, of those proposed over time to explain salt decay. We present a review of scientific literature on the topic, followed by a study of the effects of thermal expansion on a specific material, the well-known Ançã limestone. The study included experimental measurement of the linear thermal expansion coefficient of the Ançã, both in its natural state and with varying contents of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, or sodium nitrate. The results show that this coefficient: (i) is significantly higher when the stone is contaminated with salt; and (ii) scales approximately with the amount of salt contained in the stone pores, regardless of the type of salt. Based on these results and on modelling of damage modes at the microscopic and macroscopic levels, respectively, we conclude that thermal expansion can cause powdering, disaggregation, or other types of decay consisting of internal loss of cohesion. However, it is not likely to cause exfoliation of salt-loaded layers.

Composite binders for concrete with reduced permeability

Composite binder consisting of cement (55%), acid fly ash (40%) and limestone (5%) has been designed. It is obtained by co-milling to a specific surface of 550 kg/m2, it has an activity of 77.3 MPa and can produce a more dense cement stone structure. Integrated study revealed that the concrete on the composite binder basis provides an effective diffusion coefficient D. So we can conclude that the concrete layer protects buildings from toxic effects of expanded polystyrene. Low water absorption of the material (2.5% by weight) is due to the structure of its cement stone pore space. Besides lime powder prevents the penetration of moisture, reduces water saturation of the coverage that has a positive effect on useful life period. It also explains rather low water vapor permeability of the material - 0.021 mg/(m- hour-Pa).

Influence of ion exchange processes on salt transport and distribution in historic sandstone buildings

Crystallisation of salts in the pores of stone is a major concern in the preservation of heritage buildings, monuments and sculptures, but the mechanism of transport and distribution of salts is still not properly understood. The fractionation and distribution of salts in the porous matrix has, in building material research, conventionally been attributed to the solubility and concentration of salts present in the groundwater. We propose another mechanism contributing to the control of the salt distribution based on the interaction of ions in the salt solution with the charged mineral phases within the stone. The transport of mixed salt solutions was studied in laboratory simulated flow-through experiments on two fluvial sandstones – a Permo-Triassic red bed sandstone and a Carboniferous sandstone, both from the UK. The experiments were carried out under non-evaporative conditions, eliminating the possibility of solubility-dependent crystallisation. The results indicate that the process of ion exchange significantly controls the transport of ions in the pores and leads to fractionation of solutes in the course of transport even in the absence of evaporation and crystallisation. The sandstones behave like a chromatographic column and retention of various ionic species is significantly controlled by ion exchange processes. A quantitative estimation of cation exchange capacity (CEC) indicates that sandstones with higher CEC have greater influence on retention and fractionation of salts in the course of capillary transport than those with lower CEC. Simple scoping calculations using a geochemical modelling code and the ion exchange properties based on those determined in the laboratory experiments, demonstrate that ion exchange can have a significant effect on mineral precipitation during evaporation.

A novel TiO2–SiO2 nanocomposite converts a very friable stone into a self-cleaning building material

A TiO2–SiO2 nanocomposite material was formed inside the pore structure of a very friable carbonate stone by simple spraying of a sol containing silica oligomers, titania particles and a non-ionic surfactant (n-octylamine). The resulting nanomaterial provides an effective adhesive and crack-free surface layer to the stone, and gives it self-cleaning properties. In addition, it efficiently penetrates into the pores of the stone, significantly improving its mechanical resistance, and is thus capable of converting an extremely friable stone into a building material with self-cleaning properties. Another important advantage of the nanocomposite is that it substantially improves protection against salt crystallization degradation mechanisms. In the trial described, the untreated stone is reduced to a completely powdered material after 3 cycles of NaSO4 crystallization degradation, whereas stone treated with this novel product remains practically unaltered after 30 cycles. For comparison purposes, two commercial products (with consolidant and photocatalytic properties) were also tested, and both alternative materials produced coatings that crack and provide less mechanical resistance to the stone than this product. These results also confirm the valuable role played by n-octylamine in reducing the capillary pressure responsible for consolidant cracking, and in promoting silica polymerization inside the pores of the non-reactive pure carbonate stone.

Genetic fingerprint of microorganisms associated with the deterioration of an historical tuff monument in Italy

Monuments, works of art, and other cultural heritage are affected by microbial colonization that can, together with physical and chemical factors, cause serious structural and aesthetic damage. This is because cultural artifacts provide an inviting range of elements which microorganisms use in their metabolism through biosolubilization, e.g., elements such as calcium, aluminum, silicon, iron and potassium. Microorganisms can induce unsightly discolouration of building material and frescoes, formation of pigmented biofilms, biomineralization and degradation of organic binders leading to structural damage (Herrera et al. 2004). Microbial solubilization of materials involves the production of organic and inorganic acids by metabolic activity and is one of the leading biogeochemical mechanisms of rock decay. The bioreceptivity of a stone depends on its structure and chemical composition, air pollutants, moisture, and the varied elemental compositions of the stones provide a suitable environment for the microorganisms to develop. Moreover, phototrophic microorganisms may grow on the stone surface or may penetrate some millimetres into the rock pore system. These organisms can potentially contribute to the breakdown of rock crystalline structures. With time, the developing microorganisms cause the deterioration of the stones on which they reside by secreting enzymes and activating other metabolic activities by providing a suitable medium for their growth on the stone pores and surfaces (Dornieden et al. 2000; Warscheid and Braams 2000).

PetraŠiūnų Dolomito Atsijų Ir Dolomitmilčių Tinkamumo ĮPrastinio Sunkiojo Ir Susitankinančio Betono MišIniuose Prielaidos

The objective of these experimental studies is to evaluate (verify) the possibility of applying by-products (0/2 mm fraction dolomite screenings or dolomite powder) obtained in the process of producing crushed dolomite from Petrašiūnai dolomite quarry rocks in concrete technology. A rational application of this material expands the range of concrete mix aggregates and provides an integrated use of dolomite rock by consuming less attractive by-products of dolomite processing. The article discusses the possibilities of using the above introduced dolomite by-products in concrete applications and gives a preliminary assessment of physical, mechanical and technological characteristics of commercial and technological concrete with dolomite screenings. 0/2 mm fraction dolomite screenings from Petrašiūnai dolomite quarry with an average density of 2600 kg/m3, a bulk density of 1690 kg/m3, a bulk porosity of 39.1%, fine particle content (contamination with dust and clay particles) of < 4,9%, a specific surface of 1085 cm2/g determined by Blaine tester were used for experimental study. The physicalcharacteristics of dolomite powder and dolomite screenings additionally crushed in a lab ball mill were similar: an average density of 2600 kg/m3, a bulk density of 1210 kg/m3, a bulk porosity of 53,5% and a specific surface after additional milling of 3030 cm2/g and 4070…4200 cm2/g respectively. Dolomite particles have a rough, conchoidal and porous surface, however, their form is close to cubic or even oval while their edges are less sharp (mechanically grated) compared to granite or other crushed stone screenings. Therefore, dolomite particles bond very well with cement stone and almost do not increase water demand for producing a paste of normal consistency and do not weaken the rheological properties of the mixes. Dolomite screenings or dolomite powder from Petrašiūnai quarry have stable mineral composition, but the XRD patterns of rock provide little information: although dolomite peaks are prevailing, quartz and feldspar peaks can also be noticeable. Moreover, ferrous minerals (pyrite, limonite) are present in dolomite, nevertheless, so few particles of these impurities are so small (< 0.2 mm in diameter) that they pose no risk of the potential destruction of concrete. Energy consumption of crushing dolomite screenings to reach the fineness of cement particles is much lower compared to crushing granite screenings. The crushed granite screenings are 1.5–2 times finer compared to the fineness of dolomite screenings crushed for the same time. Besides, the fineness of carbonate rock powder can be easily adjusted by changing crushing time. Therefore, dolomite screenings is a very perspective raw material for producing concrete micro-aggregates. No pozzolanic behaviour of dolomite screenings and dolomite powder during the short-term curing of cement stone or concrete under normal (room) temperature conditions were observed, and therefore a rational application of these mineral admixtures in conventional concretes would be only as substitutes for fine aggregate (sand) and only partly for cement. Most probably, dolomite powder can behave as a weak pozzolanic admixture at higher temperatures (above 50 oC); however more detailed studies are required to prove this supposition. The powdered dolomite admixture does not increase water demand for obtaining the paste of normal consistency but improves the structure of cement stone pores and frost resistance. The crushed dolomite screenings reduce the compressive and bending strength of concrete cured under ordinary temperature conditions; however, a small content of these admixtures (up to 15 ÷ 20 per cent of cement mass) can be recommended for self-compacting concrete and other fine-grained concrete mixes because the deterioration of the mechanical characteristics of cement stone is insignificant, i.e. about 10 ÷ 12 per cent. Dolomite screenings substituting for sand (or a part of sand) in conventional Portland cement concrete improve the granular composition of the mix, increase the content of fine (0.063 ÷ 0.25 mm) fractions and grow in the compressive strength of such concrete by 12 per cent. Such concrete has a better structure dominated by closed pores. Therefore, fine aggregate from dolomite screenings (or with them) is recommended for Portland cement mixes or cement grouts.

Pore structure and durability of Portuguese limestones: a case study

Abstract Exposed stone surfaces containing complex systems of pores, fractures and grain boundaries provide the surfaces where chemical, physical and biological deterioration processes take place. The pore space represents the preferred area for physical, chemical and biological weathering processes. It plays a significant role in the behaviour of porous materials. A full understanding of pore-channel network morphology, size and connectivity is important in stone decay assessment and conservation works. A contribution to the understanding of the role played by the pore system in controlling fluid-related properties and resistance to salt crystallization of limestones is presented. Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury injection porosimetry (MIP) were used to characterize the pore structure of two Portuguese dimension stones (‘Semi-rijo’ and ‘Moca-Creme’) widely used for pavements and the cladding of buildings. Fluid migration physical tests (open and free porosity, capillary imbibition, and Hirschwald coefficient) were also performed, according to European ( EN 1925:1999 ; EN 1936:1999 ) and French ( N FB 10-504:1973 ) Standards. The resistance to salt crystallization was determined using European Standard EN 12370:1999 . An integrated analysis facilitated comparison between durability results with stone pore network characteristics, fluid transport properties and petrographical features, suggesting the influence of available porosity and bedding.