Stone Tools Research Articles

Food and Labour under Imperial Rule: Unravelling the Food Landscape of Transplanted Workers (mitmaqkuna) in the Inka Empire

The Inka empire's expansion incorporated diverse cultural and ecological elements in microcosmic representations of their empire. Imperial practices included the resettlement of communities from various regions into labour enclaves near Inka ceremonial, administrative and economic hubs. This degree of imperial control might suggest a limitation on Inka subjects’ freedom to integrate non-local food resources into their diets. Employing starch grain analysis from stone tools, we seek to identify the range of plant food sources and examine the extent to which the Inka imposed constraints on inter-community interactions and the exchange of comestibles. Focusing on a translocated labour force residing near the Inka provincial centre of Vilcashuamán, our findings reveal the consumption of a variety of edible plants originating from multiple, occasionally distant, ecological regions. The results indicate that, in contrast to the restrictions on trade of other commodities as recorded in ethnohistorical accounts and previous archaeological research, the exchange of edible plant species among the subjugated peoples may have been less regulated. This study demonstrates how food landscapes potentially served as loci of resistance to the Inka empire's manipulative cosmopolitanism.

A Middle Palaeolithic workshop at Andornaktálya-Marinka site (Northeast Hungary)

AbstractAlthough many Palaeolithic open-air sites are known on the foothills of the Bükk Mountains near Eger, Andornaktálya-Marinka was only discovered in 2014 thanks to new vine plantations on a hilltop. It was prospected regularly until 2019, and a test excavation was carried out in 2018. The archaeological material consists of a few undiagnostic prehistoric ceramic sherds and daub fragments, and 1706 stone artefacts. Except two fragments of polished axes, the lithic assemblage contains knapped stones. The paper presents the analysis of the lithic assemblage. This demonstrates the characteristics of an ‘older’ flake industry using almost exclusively local and regional raw materials, and those of a ‘younger’ blade industry working with long-distance ‘northern’ flints. The ‘older’ can be attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic Bábonyian, while the ‘younger’ should be related to Early Upper Palaeolithic Aurignacian or even to a Late Neolithic or Copper Age occupation.

From stone tools to fMRI, studying human cognitive evolution when the mind doesn't fossilize

From stone tools to fMRI, studying human cognitive evolution when the mind doesn't fossilize

Lower Paleolithic Stone-Animal ontologies: stone scrapers as mediators between early humans and their preferred prey

ABSTRACT Animal meat, fat, and other animal-derived materials have been essential for human adaptation since the Early Palaeolithic, forming a crucial foundation for many hunter-gatherer societies until recently. In these societies, animals were perceived as vital beings with whom a balanced relationship, based on respect, was paramount. Stone tools for multi-stage butchery enabled efficient acquisition and processing of animal remains, aligning with Indigenous ontologies. Ethnographic and ethno-archaeological data globally indicate that stone tools used in hunting, butchery, and hide-working evolved alongside changes in animal availability, driven by practical and ontological factors. Our case study from the Late Lower Palaeolithic Levant illustrates how technological transformations driven by shifting faunal availability may have mirrored cosmological perspectives. We address the viability of employing an ontological approach to interpret Acheulian hominins and suggest that stone tools were practically and perceptually associated with the animals they were designed to procure and process, starting in the Palaeolithic.

Home Economics at Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B al-Khayran in West-Central Jordan: Reconstructing Residential Unit Economic and Mobility Behavior through Lithic Analysis

ABSTRACT The shift from foraging to farming economies was deeply intertwined with increasing sedentism and the emergence of house-based corporate units in southwestern Asia, with a number of researchers arguing that in the early Neolithic, households become primary economic units within communities for the first time. In order to understand how this role for households articulated with new subsistence systems, this paper analyzes the knapped stone assemblage from the Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B agricultural field house of al-Khayran in the west-central Jordanian Highlands. Results demonstrate that al-Khayran’s residential unit enacted household maintenance activities, intensive cereal production, bidirectional blade reduction, and caching of stone tools in anticipation of repeated temporary occupations at the site. These findings show that the corporate household which occupied al-Khayran enacted novel mobility practices in order to accommodate emergent risks in agricultural economies.

A Neanderthal's specialised burning structure compatible with tar obtention

Here we present multiproxy evidence of a new type of Neanderthal hearth discovered in Vanguard Cave (VC) (Gibraltar), which is dated ∼ 65 kyr, and associated with Middle Paleolithic stone artefacts. The hearth structure coincides with predictions from theoretical studies which require the use of heating structures for obtaining birch tar, commonly used in hafting. We propose that the structure was used for heating rockroses (Cistaceae) under anoxic conditions by burning herbs and shrubs, over a guano mixed with sand layer. We tested this hypothesis experimentally with success. The presence of levoglucosan and retene in the structure's matrix points to combustion of higher resinous plant-derived material. Our results advance our understanding of Neanderthal behaviour, as the ability to organize activities related with the use of fire.

Applying geoarchaeological principles to marine archaeology: A new reappraisal of the “first marine” and “in-situ” lithic scatters, Murujuga (Dampier Archipelago), NW Australia

The absence or paucity of known underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites on the Australian inner shelf stands in stark contrast to the thousands of sites revealed elsewhere in the world. A series of papers have asserted the first in situ (i.e., primary context) UCH sites in the shallow waters of Murujuga (Dampier Archipelago), NW Australia, each arguing the stone artefact scatters are at least 7000 years old and are now submerged because of Post-Glacial sea-level rise. Subsequent papers presented new data and repeated these claims. We present new hydrodynamic modelling and data on coastal erosion and bathymetry, and re-assess each sites' sedimentary setting and archaeological site-formation history.The arguments for these sites being of primary context and reflecting Early Holocene land surfaces are unfounded, and at best untested. All artefacts are of unknown age, and many or all are likely to have been reworked, including the subtidal artefacts in Flying Foam Passage. Such sites of secondary context, if treated appropriately, can inform our understanding of site-formation processes, and may support more powerful contributions to submerged archaeology than attempts to seek the first or the oldest.

구석기시대 석기의 자루 장착과 기능 연구 - 밀개를 중심으로

Hafting of Paleolithic stone tools has been a widely recognized practice essential for understanding lithic technology. However, research in Korea has predominantly focused on the typology and edge morphology of stone tools, with limited investigation into hafting. This study aims to enhance the understanding of hafting, particularly in Upper Paleolithic end scrapers from Korea. Hafting, which emerged at least 300,000 years ago, demonstrates the cognitive sophistication of early humans, enabling them to control tool shape and size through specific techniques. While the haft was often reused, the tool component was retouched to fit, leaving distinctive traces of use, production, and hafting. From a lithic technological perspective, this study examines the concept and significance of hafting, haft types, and attachment methods. Through use-wear analysis supported by experiments and ethnographic data, four primary hafting techniques for end scrapers were identified. Future research will focus on material properties, morphometrics, and use-wear analysis to further advance the study of hafting and Paleolithic tool-use traditions.

Climatic and environmental changes since last deglaciation in the steppe region of northern China and their impact on early population survival patterns

The northern Chinese steppe is situated in the periphery of the East Asian Summer Monsoon and exhibits high sensitivity to variations in monsoon intensity and global climate change. Therefore, comprehending the climatic evolution history of this region is pivotal for elucidating early human civilization development. The research focuses on a fully enclosed crater lake located in the northern Chinese steppe by utilizing n-alkanes, total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) in lake sediments, based on AMS-14C dating analysis, the climatic and environmental evolution history of this region from the last deglaciation to the middle Holocene has been reconstructed, and the impact of climate change on the evolution of early human civilization is elucidated. The findings indicate that the EASM driven by summer solar radiation, exerts control over the climate and hydrology in the steppe region of northern China. Since the last deglaciation, the gradual warming and humidification of the climate environment have significantly enhanced the animal and plant resources, thereby establishing a solid foundation for the transition of early human populations in northern Chinese steppe from high-mobility hunter-gatherers to settled communities. Additionally, this climatic shift has provided an optimal backdrop for the emergence of primitive agriculture. The changes of stone tool assemblages unearthed at related sites also confirm the above views. However, the climate model underwent rapid changes during the period of 7.2–6.4 cal kyr BP, leading to the occurrence of extreme arid climate events. Consequently, regional precipitation decreased, lake ecology became imbalanced, woody plants retreated in the basin, and vegetation coverage was greatly reduced. The aforementioned factor may have played a pivotal role in the disappearance of early populations within the region. Consequently, climate and environmental change not only serve as the primary driving force behind human civilization’s development but also act as an inexorable catalyst for its decline.

A fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method for assessing the damage degree of cultural relics based on an improved AHP-EWM coupled weight model and a modified ridge function

Due to long-term exposure to outdoor environments, stone artifacts exhibit complex and varying degrees of disease that need to be conserved urgently in order to perpetuate their historical, artistic and scientific values. Owing to the varying degrees of damage inflicted upon cultural relics, discrepancies exist in intervention strategies and conservation materials employed. Hence, it is considerably crucial to conduct a scientific and precise assessment of the preservation status of cultural relics at an early stage for the advancement of cultural relic conservation efforts. In this research, three masonry components of the Hailongtun Fortress site were selected as study objects. A secondary fuzzy comprehensive evaluation system was established through selecting a total of 12 indicators from four aspects, namely, surface change, rock mass structure, physical properties and matrix weathering. The weight of each indicator was determined by using an improved AHP-EWM weight coupling model. The membership degree was calculated by selecting a modified ridge function. The asymmetric nearness method was employed in the final decision-making process so as to correct the error caused by the principle of maximum membership degree. The research shows that the results of the improved evaluation method are in line with the real damage degree of each masonry component, which provides a scientific and quantitative basis for determining the priority of the conservation of masonry components in the Hailongtun Fortress Site. This method is also a reference for carrying out the disease assessment and conservation of other types of cultural relics.

Along the Middle Senegal Valley and Beyond: the First Millennium BC at Diallowali, Senegal

Abstract During the first millennium BC, West Africa was in the midst of social, political, technological, and environmental change. The Diallowali site system, located along the western edge of the Middle Senegal Valley (MSV), is one of the few sites from this period to be intensively investigated and has produced a wealth of data regarding these processes. By considering a variety of artifacts, including stone tools, copper, iron, and worked bone, as well as approximately 5,000 kg of pottery, this paper establishes a detailed cultural chronology for Diallowali – the first of its kind in the Western MSV. Furthermore, these data indicate that the West African world of the first millennium BC was one of expansive interaction, including the trade and exchange of goods and ideas across an area including Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, and beyond.

Holocene shoreline displacement, land‐cover change and human settlement distribution on the southeast coast of Sweden

ABSTRACTIn this study, we investigate the interplay between relative sea‐level changes, the development of human settlements and land‐cover changes in the Västervik–Gamlebyviken region on the southeast coast of Sweden, an important archaeological area from the Mesolithic until recent times. The reconstruction of shore displacement was based on diatom analysis of radiocarbon‐dated sediment cores from three lake basins combined with previously published lake isolation data. The resulting curve was used to construct palaeogeographical maps for selected time windows. Land‐cover changes were inferred from pollen data from three lakes using the Landscape Reconstruction Algorithm with its two models REVEALS and LOVE. Our data suggest that people took advantage of the land gained due to an overall fall in relative sea level from ~35 to ~3 metres above sea level (m a.s.l.) over the last 10 000 years, interrupted by periods of transgression and highstands. A sea‐level regression of ~16 m occurred between 10 000 and 8500 cal a bp followed by an ~3–4‐m sea‐level rise, reaching ~22 m a.s.l. at ~7500 cal a bp, which corresponds to the maximum Littorina Sea shoreline in the area. The available archaeological findings for the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic (8950–5450 cal a bp) agree well with the shore displacement curve showing that settlements and human activities were concentrated along or above the shorelines as defined from our study. During the transgression after 8500 cal a bp, however, seasonal settlements were submerged (as shown by findings of polished stone tools and hearths buried in sand) and used again during the subsequent regression after 4600 cal a bp. The Iron Age (2450–900 cal a bp) corresponds partly to a highstand at ~11 m a.s.l. between 3600 and 2000 cal a bp and partly to a rapid regression of ~8 m between 2000 and 1500 cal a bp, and both periods coincide with known human activities along the contemporaneous shoreline. The rapid regression after 2000 cal a bp corresponds to an increase of both regional and local landscape openness and the beginning of a continuous record of crop cultivation.

Projectile points, dangers and Amerindian ontologies at eastern Catamarca (Argentina) during the first millennium CE

ABSTRACT Evaluating the links between South American Amerindian ontologies and the contextual study of knapped lithic technology is the main goal of this paper. To this end, we focus on a study case from eastern Catamarca province, Argentina, during the 1st millennium A.D. We identified projectile points in only one context, a rock art rock shelter (Oyola 7), while in other archaeological sites in the area, we have not recorded this type of stone tool. Drawing on ethnohistoric and ethnographic data regarding the connection between arrows and shamanic practices of illness and healing, we propose considering the agencies of these objects, as well as their intrinsic danger and their multiple possibilities of affecting beyond their traditional functional interpretation.

Chert outcrops differentiation by means of low-field NMR relaxometry

Siliceous rocks served as raw materials in the production of stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic onwards. Due to migration, the provenance of archaeological artefacts can differ from their natural outcrop location. The aim of this work was the application of 1D and 2D low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) relaxometry to distinguish cherts by their original source. Herein, bedded cherts and accompanying nodular cherts coming from three different outcrops of Kraków-Częstochowa Upland were investigated. 1D and 2D (T1-T2) experiments of water-saturated and dry rock sample states delivered T1, T2 times and T1/T2 ratios of distinct hydrogen populations – parameters sensitive to pore size, surface properties, and hydrogen bonding length. In-depth analysis of NMR data showed substantial differences in the porosity, pore surface and pore structure properties of investigated chert samples tested in the three different saturation levels (100% water-saturated, dried and differential). Finally, principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to reduce the number of correlations obtained and highlight the most important NMR properties specific to the particular outcrop localization."Please check captured corresponding author email if correct.""The email is correct"

Alternating carnivore and Neanderthal activities at Escoural Cave: insights from the taphonomic and machine learning analysis of leporid remains

Exploring the varied subsistence strategies and cave occupation patterns of Neanderthals is key to understanding their complex behaviors and ecological adaptations. Small game consumption, in particular, is considered a relevant indicator of their behavioral complexity. Rabbit assemblages from Pleistocene cave sites provide valuable insights into Neanderthal interactions with small prey and potential competition with carnivores. Here, we present the first detailed taphonomic analysis of faunal remains from Escoural Cave (Portugal), where a European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) assemblage was found alongside Middle Paleolithic stone tools and some macromammal remains. This study combines traditional zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the rabbit remains with multivariate statistics and machine learning methods to establish the origin of the accumulation, and the implications for Neanderthal subsistence and cave use. Results from the taphonomic analysis show no evidence of human consumption but abundant evidence of small terrestrial carnivore activity, primarily from lynxes. This could indicate a sequential occurrence of Neanderthal and carnivore activities in the cave, with Neanderthal activities likely related to something other than rabbit consumption. Our study contributes to characterizing Iberian carnivore fossil accumulations and differentiating between faunal assemblages accumulated by carnivores and those by hominins. Additionally, we show that the use of machine learning analysis provides a robust and objective method for identifying and classifying taphonomic signatures, enhancing the accuracy and reliability of our interpretations. Future work will focus on analyzing additional faunal collections from both past and new excavations at Escoural, to test whether carnivores and Neanderthals focused on different prey types and how they shared the cave space.

Examining the effect of post-depositional processes on the preservation and identification of stone tool residues from temperate environments: An experimental approach.

Studying taphonomy is crucial for understanding how post-depositional processes impact archaeological remains. This knowledge is pivotal for accurately interpreting the archaeological record. Although taphonomy has a long tradition in archaeology, it is less developed in the analysis of stone tool residues compared to other subdisciplines. To address this gap, our study aims to further develop our understanding of the preservation potential of stone tool residues in temperate environments through actualist experiments. To achieve this, we develop a multidimensional experimental program that features the first biweekly monitoring of weathering processes on residues over a one-year cycle, aiming to understand the short-term effects of weathering immediately after tool discard. Additionally, the program involves the study of longer-term burial and weathering visual effects on different residue types within various previously unexplored depositional environments. This approach allows us to observe the visual effects of both weathering and burial processes and to improve our understanding of the different mechanisms involved in the diagenesis of stone tool residues. While known factors such as microbial activity and soil acidity play a primary role in residue decay, specific stone tool-related factors also prove important, underscoring the need to develop further a specific branch of taphonomy related to stone tool residues. Moreover, our results show that certain residue types may survive within these environments that are often considered as being hostile. A residue analysis of stone tools from temperate contexts may thus contribute unique data that can improve our understanding of past human behaviour. Future research with more diverse residue types and depositional conditions will permit further refinement of our understanding of how taphonomy affects residue preservation and enhance the reliability of residue identifications. As such, stone tool residue analysis will become firmly rooted within broader functional approaches to address how humans use stone tools and how this affects stone tool variability.

Study on the Applicability of Deterioration Detection Techniques for Sandstone Heritage in Multi Environment using MLP-Attention Model

Abstract. Stone cultural heritage, encompassing a broad spectrum of artifacts such as stone artworks, buildings, tools, and utensils, represents one of the most significant categories of cultural heritage. However, the conservation of these cultural heritage faces challenges from the process of deterioration. This degradation not only compromises the structural integrity of the heritage but also results in the loss of invaluable historical information. Thus, there emerges a critical demand for effective methods to detect and assess the condition of stone cultural heritage, enabling timely and precise conservation interventions. Here we obtained sandstone samples under different deteriorative environments through laboratory-simulated deterioration experiments and employed a variety of detection technologies to capture a series of changes in the deterioration detection parameters during the sandstone deterioration process. Subsequently, a deep learning model was established to correlate the detection parameters with the degree of stone deterioration. A SHAP analysis was then conducted to determine the contribution of various parameters to the degree of stone weathering under different experimental environments, providing recommendations for selecting appropriate detection technologies and indicators adapted to different deterioration environments. To further analyze the deterioration processes of the stone samples, XRD analysis was conducted to observe changes in mineral composition throughout the deterioration process. SEM images were utilized to examine the changes in micro-morphology and the internal pore structure associated with deterioration. This study provides a basis for the scientific design of deterioration detection schemes by selecting the most suitable testing technology for optimal deterioration assessment under specific environmental conditions.

Born again

Ground and abrasive stone tools had a long, dynamic and complex life during which they could repeatedly pass through different segments of the operational chain until their final disposal. Those tools would wear out slowly and could be used for a long time with constant renewal. Even after being damaged, they would start a new life cycle through various recycling processes or in a secondary context. The aim of this paper is to consider the transformative processes within the ground and abrasive stone industry in the Neolithic of Serbia and clarify their use in terms of maintenance, secondary use, and recycling, as well as to show the most frequent examples of such technological practices. The focus is primarily on tools for everyday use and the ways in which they were rerouted through various segments of the operational chain.

Identifying organic residue on ground stone tools from Mesolithic sandy sites: selected examples from Paliwodzizna 29 in Central Poland

During excavations at the Mesolithic site Paliwodzizna 29 (central Poland), in addition to the flint artefacts typical for this period and region, a collection of 175 non-flint stone artefacts was discovered. This collection included various “macro-lithic tools” displaying visible intentional modifications and usage traces. This observation prompted a preliminary traceological analysis of a selection of tools. The primary goal of the presented research was to assess the possibility of analysing and interpreting use-wear traces and potential residues on these tools. The ultimate aim was to investigate the feasibility of conducting such analyses on macro-lithic tools from the sandy sites of the Polish Lowland dating back to the Mesolithic.

Hidden lithic treasures. Research perspectives on museum collections of the Neolithic stone tools

Museum collections contain numerous finds that are considered low-quality data and do not attract the proper attention of researchers. The most common reason is the uncertain context of the finds or lack of other precise identification. The main aim of this paper is to increase the scientific value of so-called stray finds. The collection of the Neolithic stone tools from two museums was subjected to multifaceted analysis combined with detailed archival research. The results allowed us to address two important aspects. At the level of objects, the use of microscopic observations proved the complexity and prolonged use-life of the Neolithic tools. At the cultural level, the re-evaluation of stray finds introduces changes in the range of Neolithic settlements in SW Poland.