Stone Arch Research Articles

A study of stone arch bridge’s flood reliability through a surrogate model approach

Europe’s historic masonry arch bridges are culturally and economically significant, but their long-term safety must be ensured. Scour effects are the most common cause of collapse, so it is necessary to carry out structural assessments to mitigate the risk and prevent potential failures. In this study, a metamodel-based method was used to determine the probability of failure of an existing stone arch bridge in Portugal due to local and contraction scour on the abutments. Non-linear finite element analysis supported the calculation of the reliability index, which took into account the soil-structure interaction and the failure mechanism. The variables with the greatest influence on the load-carrying capacity of the structure were identified and a surrogate model was implemented. Fragility curves were then derived based on the surrogate model, using scour depth as a measure of intensity and load factor as an engineering requirement parameter. The results of the study indicate that the load capacity of the numerical model is compromised when the scour depth of 1.5 m reaches the base of the foundation. As a result, stability problems and settlements are observed in the model. At a depth of 2.5 m, the soil reaches its ultimate bearing capacity.

Structural Assessment of a Masonry Arch Bridge before and after a traditional inner arch retrofitting technique

To assess the structural behaviour of masonry arch bridge and identify the occurrence of damage reliable numerical models to perform accurate nonlinear structural analyses are needed. The innovative strategy known as Discrete Macro-Element Model (DMEM) is here employed to simulate the performance of a masonry arch bridge before and after a traditional structural retrofitting. The adopted numerical strategy assures a geometrically consistent model characterized by a very low computational burden and reliable results. As case study, a masonry arch bridge located in Maletto (Italy), belonging to the rail network, around Etna volcano, called Ferrovia CircumEtnea (FCE). The bridge has been built in 19th century and was subjected to a structural retrofitting in 1984, because of a light settlement of the central pier due to landslide. The bridge was reinforced with the introduction of a supplemental thin inner reinforced concrete arch, at the intrados of the existing stone arches, externally confined by an external steel corrugated thick plate also used as formworks. In this paper the HiStrA bridge software, where the DMEM is implemented, is used for providing a structural assessment of the bridge in its original configuration and after the structural retrofitting. Both push-down and push-over analyses are performed clearly showing the efficacy of the adopted traditional retrofitting strategy.

Study on Anti-Weathering Protection of Excavated Ancient Stone Arch Bridge with Nano-Composites

After archaeological excavation, the underground ancient bridge has changed from a relatively stable underground environment to a modern environment with a large temperature difference between day and night, long sunshine, changeable climate, rain erosion and serious air pollution. In addition to the need to control the external environment, it is necessary to actively carry out research on anti-weathering materials for stone cultural relics. In this study, five common weathering materials were selected, and three of them were hybridized with nano-silica to obtain nano-composites. Through a series of property tests and anti-weathering ability tests, the comprehensive anti-weathering effect of brick samples coated with anti-weathering protective materials was evaluated. The results showed that the composite of nano-silica-methyltrimethoxysilane hydrolysate showed the best comprehensive anti-weathering ability, which provides a certain reference value for the protection of similar masonry cultural relics.

Flood-induced forces and collapse mechanism of historical multi-span masonry arch bridges: The Putang bridge case

In order to obtain an adequate understanding of the vulnerability of historical multi-span masonry bridges during flood hazards for the better conservation, a typical multi-span stone arch bridge, Putang Bridge, is chosen to carry out the study on the collapse mechanism of the bridge under flood-induced forces based on numerical simulations. This study has a twofold objective: to simulate numerically the forces exerted by floods on the bridge, and to figure out the collapse mechanism under the obtained flood loads. The hydrodynamic pressure distribution and drag and lift forces on the bridge are predicted with CFD simulation considering eight different flooding levels. The simulation method is validated in advance with existing experiments. A bridge with higher cutwaters is modeled to assess the effects of the height of cutwaters on mitigating the flood loads. A finite element model of the bridge is developed and the obtained flood loads are applied to investigate the vulnerability of arch bridges in floods. The findings of this research could contribute to a clear comprehension of the flood-induced forces on arch bridges and the structural vulnerability, and also could provide some insights on preparing the early warning strategy and preventive measures for historical masonry arch bridges.

Multi-objective optimization-based model calibration of masonry bridges

Multi-objective optimization-based model calibration can be an intermediate solution between the computationally expensive probabilistic approaches and the single-objective optimization strategies that do not allow uncertainty quantification of the obtained solutions. This work addresses the multi-objective model calibration of two historic stone arch bridges using high-fidelity computational FE models. To implement the methodology, a five-step approach is proposed: experimental characterization through non-destructive testing techniques, non-parametric as-built geometric modeling, macro-finite element modeling, sensitivity analysis, and multi-objective optimization. The preferred solution among the Pareto front solutions is selected based on two different classical criteria, and the set of optimal solutions is further statistically analyzed to assess the validity of the identification process. The results show an average frequency error of 0.97 % and 0.70 % and an average MAC of 0.97 and 0.96 for each case study, respectively, thus highlighting the adequacy of the proposed methodology.

Study on Mechanical Calculation Model of Arch Ring in Freestanding Stone Cave-Dwelling

The freestanding stone cave-dwelling is a kind of arched and sheltered house built with stones in the Loess Plateau region of northwest China. Amazingly, before construction, this kind of cave-dwelling was not formally calculated and designed in theory, but only built on the experience passed down by predecessors. The arch ring is the main load-bearing component of the freestanding stone cave-dwelling, through which the upper loads are transmitted to the legs on the left and right sides of the cave-dwelling and then to the foundations. Therefore, it is a prerequisite to ensure the safety of cave dwellings by adopting a reasonable and accurate mechanical calculation model for the arch ring of a stone cave-dwelling to reveal the distribution of internal forces in the arch ring and scientifically design the arch ring accordingly. Three mechanical calculation models (structural calculation diagrams) are adopted for the arch ring of stone cave-dwelling, namely, hingeless arch, two-hinged arch, and three-hinged arch. Based on the force equilibrium and the force method from the structure mechanics, the formulae for calculating the internal force of the stone arch ring under these three different mechanical calculation models are derived respectively. The mechanical calculation results of three calculation models are compared and analyzed to clarify the difference and rationality of the stress results of the arch ring under the three mechanical calculation models and the degree of influence on the force of the lower cave-dwelling leg members. Lastly, in accordance with the internal force calculation results, the calculation formulae for the design of the arch ring thickness are proposed. The study shows that the hingeless arch and two-hinged arch models are more consistent with the actual failure characteristics, two-hinged arch calculation model is safer, more accu-rate, and more reliable than the hingeless arch calculation model when it is used in the mechanical analysis of circular arc arch ring. The findings are intended to serve as theoretical references for the design and construction, protection and reinforcement, and sustainable development and inheritance of cave dwellings in the future.

Preserving our heritage: A photogrammetry-based digital twin framework for monitoring deteriorations of historic structures

Preservation of historic structures is a global challenge for governments and site owners, as accumulated deteriorations could weaken the structural integrity. Recent advances in the digital twin in civil and infrastructure engineering have shown great promise in creating virtual models of a physical entity under time-varying physical states. Because of this unique feature, assessing time-varying structural deteriorations become feasible. This paper presents a novel methodological attempt of health monitoring for historic structures by integrating photogrammetry technologies and point cloud processing algorithms into a digital twin framework. To make this viable, virtual models of the physical structure at different inspection times are first created via photogrammetry technologies. Then, a bridge health monitoring method is established to align two virtual models together and further differentiate the changes provoked by structural deterioration. We validate the proposed methodology in a historic stone arch bridge for detecting multiple simulated structural deteriorations.

Experimental validation of a non-linear train-track-bridge dynamic model of a stone arch railway bridge under freight traffic

ABSTRACT This article presents the validation of a non-linear FE numerical model of a multi-span stone arch railway bridge based on experimental tests and under in-service freight trains. Static loading tests allow evaluating the bridge response in terms of vertical displacements in the arches, opening/closure deformations on specific block joints of the arches, and vertical compressive stress variations in the piers. The bridge FE model is developed by combining the potentialities of a global continuous homogeneous model, based on FEM and Drucker-Prager model, and a local modelling approach based on a dedicated non-linear contact model. The freight vehicle modelling is based on a flexible FE approach, and the validation of the dynamic behaviour of the train-bridge system involved the comparison between numerical and experimental responses. All the numerical responses are in very good agreement with the experimental responses. Finally, a simulation of the dynamic behaviour of the train-bridge system is performed for realistic scenarios of freight traffic considering speeds between 40 and 140 km/h.

A Method of Weathering Prevention for Ancient Stone Arch Bridges: A Case Study of the Putang Bridge, China

A Method of Weathering Prevention for Ancient Stone Arch Bridges: A Case Study of the Putang Bridge, China

Couples who Collaborate: Jay Albee

Jen Breach and J. Anthony—known collectively as Jay Albee—are the LGBTQ+ couple behind the Riley Reynolds (2022) book series. Riley is one of the first non-binary characters for young readers (ages 8-12). A fourth grader who lives in a neighborhood in South Philly, Riley navigates their community as any fourth-grader would, with curiosity, adventure, and imagination.Jay Albee’s four books, all published in 2022 by Stone Arch Books, include Riley Reynolds Slays the Play, Riley Reynolds Rocks the Park, Riley Reynolds Glitterfies the Gala, and Riley Reynolds Crushes Costume Day.

Rescue of a stone bridge with respect to current condition and standards

A three span stone masonry bridge dating back to the middle of the 19th century, still in the roadway network, is assessed to prevent its demolition. Its industrial heritage value and ecological concerns were the principal reasons for the assessment. The carbon footprint of the stone arch replacement would be approximately 200 t CO2 emission owing to 430 m3 reinforced concrete in the new structure. Besides the cultural monument, considerable energy, CO2 emissions and natural resources can be saved in accordance with the sustainable development goals. Standards, guides and commercial software do not provide an adequate support for the assessment of masonry arch bridges, therefore an innovative two phase application of a commercial linear sttructural analysis code and an original in-house code was developed for the purpose. Thousands of stone ach bridges still in service worlwide give the case study more general importance.

Investigation of tie-rod connection types on stone masonry arches

Tie-rods fixed in different ways in arch and column (pillar) junction areas of historical structures are frequently encountered. These tension members used to sustain the stability of arches play a significant role in the survival of the whole building. In this study, the effect of different tie-rod systems that are fixed on stone arches on the overall behavior of arch is investigated. In the scope of this study, seven stone arches, one reference with no tie-rod, and six repaired using different tie-rod systems were tested under vertical loading. Tested specimens were also analyzed numerically using a commercial computer program called LUSAS. The data obtained as a result of the experiments and the outputs obtained from the numerical models were compared with each other. The main aim of this research is to examine the efficiency, viability, and practicality of replacement techniques recommended for tie-rods in historic masonry stone arches. At the end of the study, the difficulties in the application of tie-rod systems in restoration and strengthening works are examined and the most suitable tie-rod system is revealed by drawing attention to mistakes made during restoration works.

Evaluation of bearing capacity of multi-span spandrel-braced stone arch bridge based on static load test

Evaluation of bearing capacity of multi-span spandrel-braced stone arch bridge based on static load test

Numerical simulations of experimental material testing in stone masonry arch railway bridges

This paper reports on a numerical study focused on the characterization of the masonry and infill material behaviour of stone arch railway bridges. The study is based on experimental data from testing campaigns carried out in materials of two granite stone bridges. The campaigns comprise lab tests on stone masonry samples (blocks and joints) collected from the bridge structure, as well as in-situ flat-jack testing and Ménard pressuremeter tests on masonry and infill components, respectively. A strategy was developed resorting to Finite Element (FE) methodologies involving local scale numerical simulation of the joint lab tests (shear tests) and both in-situ tests (Flat-jack and Ménard pressuremeter tests), aiming at the calibration and validation of the material parameters to be used in global scale numerical simulations of the bridges’ structural behaviour. The joint shear behaviour is simulated using a FE discrete formulation based on contact elements whereas the Flat-jack and Ménard pressuremeter testing is simulated using FE continuous homogeneous nonlinear materials based on a Drucker-Prager (D-P) model. The calibration of the D-P model input parameters is performed through a sensitivity analysis followed by an optimization strategy based on a genetic algorithm. The methodology showed the potential to calibrate the material constitutive parameters to be adopted in FE numerical models of this type of bridge.

Quantitative evaluation method of structural safety status of ancient Chinese three-hole stone arch bridges—A case study of the Yongchang Bridge

ABSTRACT A study is presented on a quantitative evaluation method of structural safety for an existing three-hole stone arch bridge, in order to determine the structural safety status of this type of stone arch bridges and provide a scientific basis for their restoration and conservation. Taking as an example a typical three-hole stone arch bridge, the Yongchang Bridge, firstly, its shape and the structural configuration were studied and its damages were surveyed and categorized. Then, the structural performance of the Yongchang Bridge was analyzed by using finite element software. An improved analytic hierarchy process method based on component importance analysis was proposed to obtain the weight coefficients of the main structural components of this kind of bridges. Finally, the structural safety status of the Yongchang Bridge was quantitatively evaluated with this proposed method, which was proved to be consistent with the real situation, verifying the efficiency and accuracy of this evaluation method. The results can provide a reference for structural safety evaluation and scientific conservation of ancient stone arch bridges.

Strengthening of existing stone arch bridges using UHPC: Theoretical analysis and case study

Ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC) is widely used in retrofitting damaged structures, but few studies on the reinforcement of stone arch bridges have been reported. This paper presents a simplified analysis and its application for a damaged stone arch bridge. The finite strength of the masonry, the friction and rotation between voussoirs and the bond shear strength between UHPC and stone were considered. A double-sided shear test was carried out to determine the bond shear strength where stones were taken from the considered bridge. Four UHPC strengthening configurations, including intrados, extrados, U-hoop (wrapping for three sides) and □-hoop (wrapping for four sides) reinforcement configurations were discussed. The collapse mechanisms and load collapse multipliers were analyzed in their original and strengthened configurations. The analyses performed indicate that the interface strategies of scabbling and post-installed rebar can ensure ductility and interface bonding strength. The considered non-reinforced bridge shows a lack of load-carrying capacity of approximately 40% with respect to that required by the demand of local heavy traffic. To obtain load collapse multiplier values greater than one, the respective thicknesses of the UHPC reinforcement layer required by the four UHPC reinforcement configurations are 10 cm, 8.3 cm, 6.8 cm and 6.0 cm. The structural stiffness and carrying capacity have been significantly improved after reinforcement, which shows that UHPC is reliable for reinforcing a stone arch bridge and offers the value of popularization and application.

Structural assessment of the historic Ten Arches Bridge in Jordan

ABSTRACT The Ten Arches Bridge is a historical stone bridge that is located in Amman, Jordan. The bridge has a valuable cultural heritage as it was built in 1908 to serve the Hejaz Railway Line. This study presents a structural assessment of the bridge including a field inspection, experimental investigation, and numerical structural analysis. The study also investigates the efficacy of utilizing in-situ Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) such as Rebound Hammer (RH) and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) tests in the assessment of stone arch bridges. Detailed experimental and numerical investigations were performed to identify the structural integrity of the bridge by evaluating the acting stresses and displacements under static and dynamic loads. Minor deteriorations were found in the bridge’s body due to human and environmental factors. However, the geometrical properties of the bridge have not been significantly changed. The obtained results of the numerical analysis concluded that the bridge can sustain the current imposed dead and traffic loads, but not serve seismic actions. Compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of stone units obtained by RH and UPV tests are in agreement with the laboratory tests. Accordingly, NDT techniques can provide and verify basic mechanical properties that are needed for numerical analyses.

Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Stone Arch Bridges by Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis Using Discrete Element Method

ABSTRACT Evaluation of the seismic performance of two historical stone arch bridges of the Iranian rail network is presented using a discrete element method. The total length of the bridges is 66.7 m and 106.1 m. The bridges consist of multi-span arches changing from 5 m to 48.6 m. The incremental dynamic analysis method is used to determine the damage, failure patterns, and acceleration of the collapse threshold. Using the discrete element method after static analysis under gravity load, dynamic analysis of bridges under both horizontal components of the earthquakes was performed simultaneously for different earthquake intensities until collapse. The results showed that the most extensive damage occurred in the smaller bridge with the onset of failures in the top spandrels of the arches and then the piers of the bridge, while in the larger bridge which had a large central arch span, damage and failure occurred more in the central arch and its spandrels. The collapse spectral acceleration of the larger bridge is considerably smaller than the smaller bridge such that the ratio of collapse spectral acceleration of the larger to smaller bridge varies only between 45% to 61%. The low spectral acceleration intensity of collapse indicates more seismic vulnerability of the larger bridge.

Ancient Mesopotamian Stone Bridge: Numerical Modeling and Structural Assessment

This study aimed to investigate the stress-strain and strain energy density (SED) states of Dalal stone arch bridge in Mesopotamia. Structural modeling of ancient bridge made of natural stone has been proven reliable, and accurate results have been obtained using 3D finite elements. Based on the more applicable theories of failure, a general methodology is presented for evaluating the ringstone of the largest ellipse-shaped arch of the Dalal Bridge. The elliptical arch was built in the COMSOL Multiphysics complex using 70 3D elements to represent the number of stones used along the length of the arch in the Dalal Bridge. Therefore, to create an accurate model, the coordinates of the four nodes of each stone were entered. Then, all domains were extruded for 0.8 m in the y-axis direction, i.e., 0.8 m of the bridge width was selected for investigation. That is, tapered fields were used to represent the stones of the arch ring. Using Rankine’s, St. Venant’s, and Haigh’s theories, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of all components of the stresses and SED states are investigated. The maximum positive values of the principal stresses, σ1, σ2, and σ3, in the 3D model reach 1.4, 0.51, and 0.09 MPa, respectively, and their maximum negative values were 13, 6.8, and 3.4 MPa, respectively. The equivalent principal stresses determined via a 2D investigation did not exceed these values. Evaluating the ringstone against the maximum principal strain theory (i.e., St. Venant’s theory) reveals a safety factor of four in the existing state. Also, application of Haigh’s theory confirms the results of the previously applied approaches. Even though the safety of the arch, according to the total strain energy theory (i.e., Haigh’s approach), has been verified, a significant variation in the nonuniformity of the distribution of the SED (0.0011 J/m3–4416 J/m3) confirmed that the geometry of the investigated arch is not optimal for applied loading. The maximum value of the vertical component of the displacement is 3.4 mm, significantly lower than the allowable deflection for such an arch span.

A mindlin shell finite element for stone masonry bridges with backfill

Stone masonry bridges are difficult to analyse with commercial finite element (FE) packages for their specific heterogeneous composition. The stone arch is best modelled as a thick shell where there are predestined directions of tension failure, normal to the bed joints. A dedicated, very simple, Mindlin shell finite element is developed with five translational degrees of freedom per node. It features compatibility with linear isoparametric or constant strain elements for the backfill. Most bridges can be analysed with a sufficient accuracy assuming plain strain conditions. The element then simplifies to a Timoshenko beam element with three translational degrees of freedom per node. An application of the latter one to the bridge at Poniklá is presented.