Stone Anchors Research Articles

Not a Rolling Stone: On Dragging a Stone Weight-Anchor on the Seabed

The force required to drag a stone anchor over several types of surfaces was measured, recorded, and analyzed. It was found that the force involved in the movement of the anchor over the various surfaces cannot be described just by the sliding solids theory, but it involves several additional physical processes, such as increasing the sand shear strength by the pressure the anchor applies on the sand under it; the sinking of the anchor into the saturated sand; shearing the sand in front of the moving anchor and accelerating it to the velocity of the anchor; accumulating sand in front of the anchor, thus adding to the pulled mass; and moving some of the accumulated sand sideways. In many instances, the beginning of the anchor movement involves the liquefaction of the sand under it, thus enabling the relatively easier sliding of the anchor. In addition, movement over rocky surfaces, encountering the irregularities that abound on such surfaces, also differs from classic sliding friction theory. In several situations, the use of an effective coefficient of friction, combining all the processes, can serve to obtain approximate values of the required forces.

Bronze Age Stone Anchors as Material Metaphors: Applying Conceptual Blending Theory to Investigate Their Symbolic Value

In ancient navigation, the safety of a ship depended in no small measure on the stability of her anchors, and this crucial role at sea was not overlooked in the ritual symbolism of maritime communities. Accordingly, there is a general consensus on the fact that the anchors deposited at Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age temples were important carriers of meaning for seafaring groups. Nevertheless, little effort has been made to understand the role of anchors in the conceptual world of the ancient seafarers beyond the fact that they were powerful symbols of maritimity. Borrowed and adapted from linguistics, Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT) provides the theoretical framework to use material culture as a source for the investigation of ancient thought processes. In this paper, I apply the perspective of CBT to the anchors found at the Late Cypriot sanctuary of Kition-Kathari, with comparisons to those from Byblos and Ugarit, and I examine the cognitive implications of anchors as material metaphors and investigate how they embody the blending of the mental spaces of the sacred, the city, and the sea.

Judging a ship by its anchor: Bronze age stone weight anchors as indicators of ship size

Three scale models of a one-hole stone anchor found at the Uluburun shipwreck site were tested in the sea, with their dragging force history being monitored and recorded. It was found that on a sandy seabed the measured holding power of an anchor is about 37 % of its dry weight, and about 49 % of its dry weight on a rocky seabed. The results were applied to the Ma‘agan Mikhael II replica ship, and the forces acting on the ship, in different sea conditions, were compared to the holding power of the anchor. Wind velocity of 31.1 knots (16 m/s) and a current velocity of 2.9 knots (1.5 m/s), were chosen as representing extreme sea conditions. The forces acting on an anchored Ma‘agan Mikhael II ship under these conditions were calculated and extrapolated for ships of different dimensions, but with the same structure and proportions as the Ma‘agan Mikhael II using the replica scaling relations. These were compared to the holding power of the anchor, and the results can create a model that estimates the maximum size of the ship (as represented by its cargo capacity) by the mass (weight) of the anchor. This model estimates the size of a ship using a single one-hole stone anchor.

Provenance of Bronze Age stone anchors, a case study from the Carmel coast, Israel

Many stone anchors from the Bronze Age period have been found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. Previous research found that most stone anchors of the Middle Bronze Age (a.k.a. Byblian type) and of the Late Bronze Age (a.k.a. Uluburun type) were made from carbonate rocks and aeolianites (kurkar, in Hebrew; quartz sand cemented by calcite). These rocks are common along the Eastern Mediterranean coasts and cannot be easily distinguished into quarry sites on a micro-regional scale. While previous research utilized rock petrography to propose provenance of such anchors, we present a multi-disciplinary methodology that utilizes several lines of mineralogical and geochemical evidence. In this study, we report on preliminary results obtained from mineralogical, isotopic, and petrographic analyses conducted on 17 Bronze Age stone anchors from well-dated underwater assemblages found along the Carmel coast, northern Israel, as well as on an initial rock reference collection of carbonate rocks, kurkar, and beachrock outcrops from various coastal regions of Israel. Comparing the data of the reference rocks with stone anchors we show that all carbonate rock anchors were prepared from chalky limestone (rather than limestone or dolomite), with high likelihood that nine out of the 12 such anchors were produced from the Arqan Formation chalky limestone, from the Carmel ridge. One carbonate rock anchor may originate from a geological formation we have either not sampled along the Israeli coast or from a foreign origin. Other stone anchors were produced from kurkar or beachrock. Our findings suggest that these were produced from rocks from the Carmel coast and further north. We also identify-two procurement strategies for stone anchors: either as a unified set from a production center, or mixed and matched from different rock types and sources. This pilot study opens the possibility to analyze stone anchor provenance in the Eastern Mediterranean in more detail than before. Future research to enlarge the rock reference collection beyond the Israeli coast will provide further archaeological and anthropological insight into maritime activity during the Bronze Age.

Geochemical provenance of an Indo-Arabian stone anchor from Manikapatna highlights the medieval maritime trade of India

India is one of the oldest maritime nations in the world, and the overseas contacts date back to the third millennium BCE. Besides several archaeological vestiges, numerous stone anchors of various types have been documented during maritime archaeological explorations along the Indian littoral. During a recent maritime archaeological exploration, a broken Indo-Arabian stone anchor, of the Medieval period, was discovered along the Manikapatna coast of Odisha, Indian eastern littoral. In an attempt to determine the provenance of the anchor, we carried out a detailed petrographic, geochemical (major/trace elements) and Sr–Nd isotopic investigation. The results of our study reveal that the stone of the anchor had been cut out of a geologically young, vesicular, subalkalic basalt lava flow. Source fingerprinting done using petrographic, geochemical and isotopic data, suggests that contrary to the general perception, the anchor rock did not come from any local rock formations. All data point to the most likely scenario that the anchor rock was sourced from one of the lava flows of the Deccan Traps at Palitana in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat, western India. This result confirms the existence of Medieval maritime trading between western and eastern Indian states.

Ancient Anchors showing Maritime History (Based on Tamil University Museum Evidence)

Anchors made of stone, wood or metal played a significant role in marine history. They have been used as protection material for ships in ports and as a means of establishing maritime relations with other countries. A variety of anchors used in passenger ships, cargo ships, and warships around the world have been discovered by marine researchers. Stone anchors were initially introduced in India and iron anchors after the arrival of the Europeans. Since then iron anchors have been developed and used in various parts of India. Ancient stone anchors and later iron anchors have been found especially on the east coast of Tamil Nadu. Such anchors are a testament to man’s maritime ability and knowledge in ancient times. Such anchors are on display at the Tamil University Museum, Thanjavur. In that sense this article describes the maritime technique and maritime history that the Tamils knew for commercial purposes in ancient times.

RE‐SURVEY OF THE ANCHORAGE AT MARONITSAROUKKAS, CYPRUS: DEFINING AND VIEWING A LATE BRONZE AGE COASTSCAPE

SummaryDirectly offshore from the Late Cypriot (LC) site of MaroniTsaroukkason the south‐central coast of Cyprus lie the remains of an anchorage with stone anchors, LC ceramics, and stone blocks. Initially surveyed in 1995–96, the anchorage was re‐surveyed from 2017–19 to investigate and document fully the underwater site and to develop accurate underwater survey recording methodologies for defining this coastscape interaction zone. The site was surveyed by measuring finds into an established grid and using a computer‐controlled camera system for photogrammetry. The results expand the known extent of the anchorage, include newly documented archaeological remains, and challenge us to re‐conceptualize the area. In addition to anchors and pottery representative of maritime use, the presence of unfinished anchors and LC IA ceramic assemblages in the western part of the site indicates a LC coastal region likely once terrestrial that is now submerged, forming part of a newly identified coastscape locale.

On the proportions of Bronze Age, one-hole, stone, weight anchors from the eastern Mediterranean

Many one-hole stone anchors have been found around the eastern Mediterranean, in Kaş (Uluburun, Gelidonia), Antalya, Ugarit, Byblos, Kition, the Carmel coast, Caesarea, Ashkelon, Alexandria, etc. They are of varying sizes, weighing from a few to hundreds of kilograms. Apart from the single hole, they have another common attribute – they all fell within a certain range of geometrical proportions, one of which was the length to thickness ratio of about 4.2:1.The hole in the upper part of such an anchor increases the susceptibility of the anchor to mechanical failure. Sensitivity to three major modes of failure – tension, shear and bending, was analysed. It was found most broken anchors seem to have failed by bending. Such failure could be incurred either during service life on a ship or in secondary use on land.It was also found that for three-hole composite anchors, the average length to thickness ratio was about 5.5:1, meaning that for a given face area they were relatively thinner and lighter. In addition, they were smaller in face area, and thus had about 25%–50% greater holding power, and posed less handling risk to ship and crew than the one-hole type.

Indo-Arabian Stone Anchor of Manikapatna, Odisha, East Coast of India: An Indicator of Maritime Contacts of Odisha

Indo-Arabian Stone Anchor of Manikapatna, Odisha, East Coast of India: An Indicator of Maritime Contacts of Odisha

Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India

In maritime archaeological studies, anchors made of stone, wood, or metal have played a significant role in shipping, not only acted as a proxy during the period of their use but also suggesting maritime connections with other countries. Anchors of different types have discovered all over the world which used in the vessels engaged in carrying cargo, passengers as well as warships. Iron anchors were introduced in India by the European rulers, and later on, were manufactured in different parts of India. Like the stone anchors, different types of iron anchors have been recorded during onshore explorations as well as underwater sites with and without shipwreck remain along the Indian coast. In recent past, coastal explorations along Tamil Nadu coast brought to light two iron anchors at Tuticorin harbour while other two anchors displayed at the Government Museum, Egmore, Chennai. Both the iron anchors of Tuticorin harbour belong to Trotman type. In contrast, the iron anchors of the Government Museum, Egmore, belong to Old plan Long shanked Anchor (Admiralty Long Shanked) and Admiralty pattern anchor. This paper details a comprehensive study of these iron anchors and a comparative survey of the iron anchors of Tamil Nadu as well as India.

The wonders of cape Kaliakra

In „Slavic Bulgarian history” by Paysii Chilendarski I uncovered a text about Kalipol (fort and town of the cape Kaliakra) as a wheat port. During the many underwater archaeological expeditions around the cape Kaliakra famous artifacts were discovered, such as: the uncial anchorage with more than 20 Y-shaped iron anchors (August 1965), the first stone anchor (17.08.1966), a slug of gold, silver and cuprum (1969), the upper part of altar (1981). There are data for a cave complex under the stone coast.

Recently Discovered Shipwrecks in Sri Lankan Waters

During the last fifty years, many wrecks of Dutch and European steam powered ships, circa 17th century CE have been discovered around Sri Lanka. Stone anchors used by Chinese and Arab traders of 13th–14th century CE are suggestive of wrecks of different origins. The era beyond that is shrouded in mystery. Recent investigations by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka have shed light on some of these ancient ghosts. A wooden wreck located in 2008 in southern Sri Lanka was dated to the 2nd century BCE. Now known as the Godawaya wreck and it is still under excavation as of this now. Another, known as SS Indus , wrecked in 1885 containing treasures of precious antiquities for the British Museum, was found on the north coast.

Association Between Randall's Plaque Stone Anchors and Renal Papillary Pits.

Renal papillary pits are commonly encountered during ureteroscopy. The mechanism by which such pits arise is unclear. One hypothesis is that pits represent sites where stones overgrowing Randall's plaque (RP) were dislodged. We sought to examine this theory by using digital ureteroscopy and stone μCT. Patients undergoing endoscopic stone removal had procedures recorded and stones analyzed by using μCT. Stones with evidence of Randall's plaque anchors (RPAs) were identified in a blinded fashion. Surgical videos were reviewed independently by two urologists. Twenty-eight patients had μCT-confirmed stones with RPA. Among them, 93% were recurrent stone formers and 75% had had prior stone procedures. Metabolic abnormalities were present in 87%, with 79% classified as idiopathic calcium oxalate stone formers. A mean of 7.6 stones with RPA were identified per procedure. In each case, papillary pits were visualized before any stone manipulation and in several cases the active dislodgement of an attached stone led to immediate identification of an underlying pit. Such stones routinely demonstrated an RPA on μCT. The average depth of RPA was 302 ± 172 μm, consistent with the corresponding shallow pits visualized on the papillary surface. Stones overgrowing RP are capable of pulling away a piece of papilla when dislodged, resulting in a visible papillary pit. This process manifests as an RPA on the undersurface of the stone and a papillary pit on the corresponding area of attachment. Identification of pits may help identify patients who form stones primarily by the RP mechanism.

ХРОНОЛОГИЯ КАМЕННЫХ И СВИНЦОВЫХ ЯКОРНЫХ ШТОКОВ АНТИЧНОГО ВРЕМЕНИ

ХРОНОЛОГИЯ КАМЕННЫХ И СВИНЦОВЫХ ЯКОРНЫХ ШТОКОВ АНТИЧНОГО ВРЕМЕНИ

Southeast Asia in the Ancient Indian Ocean World BAR International Series S2580 TOM HOOGERVORST pp., 157 including Linguistic Appendix, 60 b&w figures, 8 tables British Archaeological Reports, 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, 2013, £31 (sbk), ISBN 978-140

Southeast Asia in the Ancient Indian Ocean World BAR International Series S2580 TOM HOOGERVORST pp., 157 including Linguistic Appendix, 60 b&w figures, 8 tables British Archaeological Reports, 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, 2013, £31 (sbk), ISBN 978-140

Use of Photogrammetry for Non-Disturbance Underwater Survey

AbstractStone anchors comprise a significant portion of observable underwater cultural heritage in the Mediterranean and provide evidence for trade networks as early as the Bronze Age. Full documentation of these anchors, however, often requires their removal from their underwater environment, especially to calculate mass. We offer a methodology for using photogrammetry to record stone anchors still in situ and calculate their approximate mass. We compare measurements derived using measuring tapes with those derived using two different software programs for photogrammetric analysis, PhotoModeler Scanner (Eos Systems, Inc.) and PhotoScan Pro (Agisoft). First, we analyze stone anchors that had previously been removed from the underwater environment to establish a reference methodology. Next, we implement this methodology in an underwater survey off the southern coastline of Cyprus. Linear measurements for both programs correlate closely with those attained via measuring tape. The resulting estimates of volume of anchors in situ and on land are slightly greater using the photogrammetric methodology than the reference volumes obtained using a water displacement methodology. Overall, as an analytical tool, this methodology generates detailed surface information in minimal time underwater and preserves data for future analysis without necessitating the removal of the anchor from its underwater environment.

Historical Period Stone Anchors from Mombasa, Kenya: Evidence of Overseas Maritime Trade Contacts with Asia and Middle East

One of the characteristics of the
 East African Coast has been its accessibility. The sea has been a means of
 contact with the outside world. Over the last 2000 years, there has been an
 interpenetration of cultures to this region through trade consequently
 assimilating this coast into the international economic system. Accessibility
 from the land has made the East African coast historically an integral part of
 Africa. This allowed movement of goods from inland to the coast and onward to
 international markets. This coast has a trade advantage because the monsoon
 winds and oceanic currents are reliable and permit rapid, seasonal navigation,
 both along the coast of eastern Africa and across the Indian Ocean to western
 and southern Asia. A number of scholars have discussed how the monsoon winds
 and currents facilitated communication between various parts of the Western
 Indian Ocean (WIO) seaboard and the Red sea, the Persian Gulf, and southeastern
 Asia. These winds caused long distance seasonal sailing along the East African
 coast and beyond to the rest of the ancient world. The islands of Comoros and
 Madagascar were also part of the Western Indian Ocean seaboard cultural and
 trade networks from very early times even before the BC/AD changeover. One of
 the major ancient coastal cities that played a role in this transoceanic trade
 is Mombasa in the Kenya coast. This paper explores these ancient trade contacts
 which have been proven by historical period stone anchors discovered in
 Mombasa, Kenya.
 

The Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia: towards a chronology of settlement

An archaeological survey of Saudi Arabia's Farasan Islands in May 2010 recorded a broad range of sites that have not previously been documented. The survey concentrated on Greater Farasan and Segid islands, and comprised a rapid recording of sites shown to the authors by representatives of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities. The sites were photographed, their positions logged, sketch drawings made of the principal features and surface pottery drawn and photographed. Detailed drawings were made of a stone anchor and a well with possible Ancient South Arabian carved decoration. The sites visited included settlements, wells, cemeteries and a cave. Several sites included the remains of buildings made of massive ashlar blocks, as well as others of rubble‐stone construction. Datable material at the sites points to several periods of occupation, from the early first millennium BC to early modern times. Some locations were characterised by long periods of settlement. Apart from the findings of this survey, most of the sites remain largely uninvestigated, and suggest significant potential for future research into settlement on the archipelago, as well as into past maritime activity and technology in the southern Red Sea region and beyond.

A Single-hole Stone Anchor from Kottapatnam: early historic port site of Andhra Pradesh, India

Kottapatnam is a lesser‐known port lying on the west bank of a lagoon which was once part of the estuary of the River Swarnamukhi, in the district of Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, on the east coast of I...

A Stone Anchor from the Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia

A Stone Anchor from the Farasan Islands, Saudi Arabia