Stimulus Array Research Articles

Pop-out effects revisited: Within-array category pop-out and novel pop-out effects with picture stimuli.

Pop-out effects occur when a novel or different stimulus is presented in the context of an array of otherwise familiar or similar stimuli. The effect has been studied using words extensively, but little evidence exists for humans relating to nonverbal stimuli. Although the finding has implications for understanding features of stimuli that capture attention, contradictory findings exist, and previous paradigms have limited applicability to real world situations. Given this, an experiment employed a novel procedure to investigate whether category pop-out effects, where one item is drawn from a different category to the others, could be obtained with pictorial stimulus array. It also investigated whether pop-out effects could be generated with a single continuous pre-exposure procedure, as would be experienced in a naturalistic setting, or whether they were the results of biases introduced by the repetitive pre-exposure procedures, typically used in such studies. The latter finding would undermine the use of such findings to support ecologically-valid models of attention. Both of these questions were answered in the affirmative: category pop-out effects were obtained using picture stimuli; and such effects were obtained with a single continuous pre-exposure. Further development this novel procedure may allow exploration of evolutionary and neurological aspects of selective attention effects.

Crossmodal semantic congruence guides spontaneous orienting in real-life scenes.

In real-world scenes, the different objects and events are often interconnected within a rich web of semantic relationships. These semantic links help parse information efficiently and make sense of the sensory environment. It has been shown that, during goal-directed search, hearing the characteristic sound of an everyday life object helps finding the affiliate objects in artificial visual search arrays as well as in naturalistic, real-life videoclips. However, whether crossmodal semantic congruence also triggers orienting during spontaneous, not goal-directed observation is unknown. Here, we investigated this question addressing whether crossmodal semantic congruence can attract spontaneous, overt visual attention when viewing naturalistic, dynamic scenes. We used eye-tracking whilst participants (N = 45) watched video clips presented alongside sounds of varying semantic relatedness with objects present within the scene. We found that characteristic sounds increased the probability of looking at, the number of fixations to, and the total dwell time on semantically corresponding visual objects, in comparison to when the same scenes were presented with semantically neutral sounds or just with background noise only. Interestingly, hearing object sounds not met with an object in the scene led to increased visual exploration. These results suggest that crossmodal semantic information has an impact on spontaneous gaze on realistic scenes, and therefore on how information is sampled. Our findings extend beyond known effects of object-based crossmodal interactions with simple stimuli arrays and shed new light on the role that audio-visual semantic relationships out in the perception of everyday life scenarios.

NANOBIOMATERIALS/BIOINKS BASED SCAFFOLDS IN 3D BIOPRINTING FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING AND ARTIFICIAL HUMAN ORGANS

Bioinks are combinations of live cells and biomaterials that are sometimes blended with tissue factor or other biomolecules for the purpose of extrusion if the desired effect is desired. The term “bioprinting” refers to a relatively new method that involves the application or depositing of biomaterial solutions or bioinks in order to produce three-dimensional (3D) constructions that have topologies and mechanical/biological qualities that are similar to those of genuine human tissue or organs. Printed structures are widely used in tissue engineering to heal or repair damaged tissues or organs, as well as in vitro tissue modeling to test and validate newly created medications and vaccinations before being administered to patients. Supporting and directing cell development toward its native surroundings. When it comes to the formation of biological structures, one of the most important challenges is to ensure that specific physicochemical and biological signals are present in a harmonious manner in order to regulate the activity of cells. Additionally, in order to stimulate stem cell differentiation toward certain tissues, exact arrays of stimuli must be established. The introduction of bioactive material with a nanoscale can control the destiny of cells, contributing to their differentiation and enabling the biofabrication of useful structures. Using nano-composite bio-ink, it is possible to create scaffolds that are instructive for cells or cells can be high quality images onto the media. In addition, the addition of nano into 3D printed configurations may make it possible for these structures to be manipulated by a range of external physical stimuli, thereby providing an additional instrument for usage in healthcare applications. With that being said, there is an interest in the development of biological systems that have functionalities such as motion, shape alteration or sensing. In this study, we emphasize how the use of nano-biomaterials in bioprinting techniques results in strategies for tissue regeneration that show promise.

A clinical 3D pointing test differentiates spatial memory deficits in dementia and bilateral vestibular failure

BackgroundDeficits in spatial memory, orientation, and navigation are often neglected early signs of cognitive impairment or loss of vestibular function. Real-world navigation tests require complex setups. In contrast, simple pointing at targets in a three-dimensional environment is a basic sensorimotor ability which provides an alternative measure of spatial orientation and memory at bedside. The aim of this study was to test the reliability of a previously established 3D-Real-World Pointing Test (3D-RWPT) in patients with cognitive impairment due to different neurodegenerative disorders, bilateral vestibulopathy, or a combination of both compared to healthy participants.MethodsThe 3D-RWPT was performed using a static array of targets in front of the seated participant before and, as a transformation task, after a 90-degree body rotation around the yaw-axis. Three groups of patients were enrolled: (1) chronic bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP) with normal cognition (n = 32), (2) cognitive impairment with normal vestibular function (n = 28), and (3) combined BVP and cognitive impairment (n = 9). The control group consisted of age-matched participants (HP) without cognitive and vestibular deficits (n = 67). Analyses focused on paradigm-specific mean angular deviation of pointing in the azimuth (horizontal) and polar (vertical) spatial planes, of the preferred pointing strategy (egocentric or allocentric), and the resulting shape configuration of the pointing array relative to the stimulus array. Statistical analysis was performed using age-corrected ANCOVA-testing with Bonferroni correction and correlation analysis using Spearman’s rho.ResultsPatients with cognitive impairment employed more egocentric pointing strategies while patients with BVP but normal cognition and HP used more world-based solutions (pBonf 5.78 × 10-3**). Differences in pointing accuracy were only found in the azimuth plane, unveiling unique patterns where patients with cognitive impairment showed decreased accuracy in the transformation tasks of the 3D-RWPT (pBonf < 0.001***) while patients with BVP struggled in the post-rotation tasks (pBonf < 0.001***). Overall azimuth pointing performance was still adequate in some patients with BVP but significantly decreased when combined with a cognitive deficit.ConclusionThe 3D-RWPT provides a simple and fast measure of spatial orientation and memory. Cognitive impairment often led to a shift from world-based allocentric pointing strategy to an egocentric performance with less azimuth accuracy compared to age-matched controls. This supports the view that cognitive deficits hinder the mental buildup of the stimulus pattern represented as a geometrical form. Vestibular hypofunction negatively affected spatial memory and pointing performance in the azimuth plane. The most severe spatial impairments (angular deviation, figure frame configuration) were found in patients with combined cognitive and vestibular deficits.

Electrophysiological response of myopic young adults with a novel ophthalmic lens for the control of myopia progression

Aims/Purpose: To evaluate the changes in the electrophysiological response of the retina induced by a novel perifocal ophthalmic lens designed for myopia control.Methods: This experimental cross‐sectional study, evaluated eleven myopic participants (24.9 ± 4.5 years) with refractive errors lower than 6.00 D (spherical equivalent of −2.40 ± 1.32 D in the right eye and − 2.24 ± 1.56 D in the left eye). Refraction, best‐corrected visual acuity, and axial length were obtained at baseline. The global flash multifocal electroretinogram (gf‐mfERG) was assessed for the sensorial dominant eye with the RETI‐port/scan21 (Roland Consult, Wiesbaden, Germany). The gf‐mfERG recordings were performed with a stimulus array pattern of 61‐scaled hexagons displayed on a 19‐inch RGB monitor at a 33 cm distance (optically corrected). The retina was divided into three groups ‐ the fovea (that included concentric ring 1), the parafovea (rings 2 and 3) and the peripheral retina (rings 4 and 5). The peak‐time (in milliseconds, ms), the amplitude (in nano‐volts, nV) and the mean response density (nV/deg2) of the direct and implicit components (DC and IC, respectively) were analysed and compared between control (monofocal contact lenses) and test conditions (perifocal lenses). These lenses have an add power of +2.50 D on the temporal side, and + 2.00 D on the nasal side, intended to change the peripheral refraction.Results: No differences were found in the DC and IC peak time between the control and test measurements, for the fovea, parafovea and peripheral retina. The mean response density of the DC was higher with the perifocal lens for the perifovea (p‐value = 0.033) and for the peripheral retina (p‐value = 0.026). For the IC, the mean response density was also higher with the perifocal lens, only for the parafovea (p‐value = 0.003).Conclusions: Perifocal lenses for myopia control upregulate the parafoveal and peripheral retinal electrical activity.

88 REASmash: A serious game in immersive virtual reality for the evaluation of spatial and non-spatial attention impairments in post-stroke individuals.

Objective:Stroke results in various cognitive and motor impairments. The most frequent cognitive problem is spatial and non-spatial attention, typically caused by unilateral brain lesion. Attention is typically assessed with several different paper-and-pencil tests, which have long been criticized for their lack of theoretical basis, their limited ecological validity to deficits experienced in daily life, and their lack of measurement sensitivity (Appelros et al., 2004; Azouvi, 2017). Here, our global aim was to develop an innovative integrative serious game in an immersive environment. The REASmash, combines the evaluation of spatial attention, non-spatial attention, and motor performance. We present the spatial and non-spatial cognitive attention evaluation results.Participants and Methods:Eighteen first stroke individuals and 40 age-match healthy controls were assessed on the REASmash. They were instructed to find a target mole presented amongst distractor moles. The stimulus array consisted of a grid of 6 columns and 4 rows of molehills, from which the target and 11, 17 and 23 distractors moles could randomly appear, in two search conditions (single feature condition and saliency condition). Responses were made with the ipsilesional hand for individuals with stroke and with the dominant hand for the healthy controls. Participants were evaluated also with two standardized clinical tests of attention; the hearts cancellation task of the Oxford Cognitive Screen, and the visual scanning subtest of the Test for Attentional Performance.Results:Validation results showed significant and strong correlations between the REASmash and the two reference tests, with the REASmash showing high sensitivity and specificity (i.e., the correct identification of the post-stroke vs. control individuals). The REASmash also showed significant and strong test/re-test reliability. We additionally evaluated user experience using the UEQ, and the results showed excellent attractiveness and novelty, and good stimulation and efficiency.Conclusions:In conclusion, the REASmash is a novel immersive virtual environment serious game that is valid, sensitive, and usable. It provides a new diagnosis measure spatial and non-spatial attention impairment.

Nonadditive integration of visual information in ensemble processing

Statistically summarizing information from a stimulus array into an ensemble representation (e.g., the mean) improves the efficiency of visual processing. However, little is known about how the brain computes the ensemble statistics. Here, we propose that ensemble processing is realized by nonadditive integration, rather than linear averaging, of individual items. We used a linear regression model approach to extract EEG responses to three levels of information: the individual items, their local interactions, and their global interaction. The local and global interactions, representing nonadditive integration of individual items, elicited rapid and independent neural responses. Critically, only the neural representation of the global interaction predicted the precision of the ensemble perception at the behavioral level. Furthermore, spreading attention over the global pattern to enhance ensemble processing directly promoted rapid neural representation of the global interaction. Taken together, these findings advocate a global, nonadditive mechanism of ensemble processing in the brain.

Evaluating convergent validity between RAISD and MSWO rankings across informants

AbstractThe Reinforcer Assessment for Individuals with Severe Disabilities (RAISD) and multiple‐stimulus without replacement preference assessment (MSWO) are evidence‐based tools used to determine preferences indirectly through interview and observation of choice making, respectively. Often, the RAISD is used to inform the stimulus array of the MSWO. However, reports frequently vary between informants. This can lead to discrepant identification of putative reinforcers and therefore has the potential for weaker or ineffective reinforcement‐based treatments. The purpose of this study was to compare RAISD and MSWO outcomes across informants (adolescent, caregiver, and teacher) and evaluate the convergent validity between the two measures. The results indicated that across participants, RAISD and MSWO results rarely produced convergent validity. Implications for practitioners and researchers are discussed.

Single- vs. combined-category preference assessments for edible, leisure, and social-interaction stimuli.

A concern when conducting combined-category preference assessments is the potential for displacement effects, a shift in the preference ranking from highly preferred to moderately or less preferred for stimuli in two of three stimulus categories (e.g., edible, leisure, or social-interaction). In this study, we evaluated potential displacement effects in combined-category arrays of edible, leisure, and social-interaction stimuli for five individuals with autism. First, single-category paired-stimulus preference assessments were implemented to identify two highly preferred stimuli from each category. When these stimuli were included in a combined-category preference assessment, displacement effects were observed for three of five participants. During a subsequent reinforcer assessment, stimuli identified as less preferred in the combined-category preference assessment functioned as reinforcers for two participants. Additionally, although social interaction was not identified as highly preferred for three of the five participants, it functioned as a reinforcer for four participants.

Visual short-term memory-related EEG components in a virtual reality setup.

Virtual reality (VR) offers a powerful tool for investigating cognitive processes, as it allows researchers to gauge behaviors and mental states in complex, yet highly controlled, scenarios. The use of VR head-mounted displays in combination with physiological measures such as EEG presents new challenges and raises the question whether established findings also generalize to a VR setup. Here, we used a VR headset to assess the spatial constraints underlying two well-established EEG correlates of visual short-term memory: the amplitude of the contralateral delay activity (CDA) and the lateralization of induced alpha power during memory retention. We tested observers' visual memory in a change detection task with bilateral stimulus arrays of either two or four items while varying the horizontal eccentricity of the memory arrays (4, 9, or 14 degrees of visual angle). The CDA amplitude differed between high and low memory load at the two smaller eccentricities, but not at the largest eccentricity. Neither memory load nor eccentricity significantly influenced the observed alpha lateralization. We further fitted time-resolved spatial filters to decode memory load from the event-related potential as well as from its time-frequency decomposition. Classification performance during the retention interval was above-chance level for both approaches and did not vary significantly across eccentricities. We conclude that commercial VR hardware can be utilized to study the CDA and lateralized alpha power, and we provide caveats for future studies targeting these EEG markers of visual memory in a VR setup.

Attentional enhancement predicts individual differences in visual working memory under go/no-go search conditions.

Attention-control processes transfer relevant information to visual working memory (WM) and prevent irrelevant information from consuming WM resources. Although event-related potentials (ERPs) have revealed attention-control processes associated with enhancement of relevant stimuli (targets) and suppression of irrelevant stimuli (distractors), only the suppressive processes have been found to predict WM capacity. We hypothesised a link between target-enhancement processes and WM capacity would be revealed in a task that requires more control than the conventional visual search paradigms used to study target selection. Here, participants searched for a pop-out target on Go trials and withheld responses on an equal number of randomly intermixed No-Go trials, depending on the colour of the stimulus array. Magnitudes of ERP indices associated with target enhancement (the singleton detection positivity, SDP, and N2pc) were positively correlated with individual differences in WM capacity. These relationships vanished when participants searched for the pop-out target on every trial, regardless of stimulus-array colour. Inhibitory processes associated with suppressing distractors (PD) and withholding responses (no-go P3) on No-Go trials did not predict WM capacity. These findings indicate that target-enhancement mechanisms control access to WM in search tasks that require dynamic control and disconfirm the view that the gateway to WM is entirely inhibitory by nature.

Moving beyond response times with accessible measures of manual dynamics

Button-press measures of response time (RT) and accuracy have long served a central role in psychological research. However, RT and accuracy provide limited insight into how cognitive processes unfold over time. To address this limitation, researchers have used hand-tracking techniques to investigate how cognitive processes unfold over the course of a response, are modulated by recent experience, and function across the lifespan. Despite the efficacy of these techniques for investigating a wide range of psychological phenomena, widespread adoption of hand-tracking techniques within the field is hindered by a range of factors, including equipment costs and the use of specialized software. Here, we demonstrate that the behavioral dynamics previously observed with specialized motion-tracking equipment in an Eriksen flanker task can be captured with an affordable, portable, and easy-to-assemble response box. Six-to-eight-year-olds and adults (N = 90) completed a computerized version of the flanker task by pressing and holding a central button until a stimulus array appeared. Participants then responded by releasing the central button and reaching to press one of two response buttons. This method allowed RT to be separated into initiation time (when the central button was released) and movement time (time elapsed between initiation and completion of the response). Consistent with previous research using motion-tracking techniques, initiation times and movement times revealed distinct patterns of effects across trials and between age groups, indicating that the method used in the current study presents a simple solution for researchers from across the psychological and brain sciences looking to move beyond RTs.

Capuchin monkeys learn to use information equally well from individual exploration and social demonstration

The limited evidence of complex culture in non-human primates contrasts strikingly with human behaviour. This may be because non-human primates fail to use information acquired socially as effectively as they use information acquired individually. Here, monkeys were trained on a stimulus discrimination task with a win-stay, lose-shift (WSLS) reward structure. In a social learning condition, the experimenter performed an information trial by choosing between the available stimuli; in an individual condition, monkeys made this choice themselves. The monkeys’ subsequent test trials displayed the same stimulus array. They were rewarded for repetition of rewarded (‘win-stay’) and avoidance of unrewarded (‘lose-shift’) information trial selections. Nine monkeys reached our pre-determined performance criterion on the initial two-stimulus stage. Their ability to generalise the WSLS strategy was then evaluated by transfer to a three-stimulus stage. Minimal differences were found in information use between the social and individual conditions on two-stimuli. However, a bias was found towards repetition of the information trial, regardless of information source condition or whether the information trial selection was rewarded. Proficient subjects were found to generalise the strategy to three-stimuli following rewarded information trials, but performed at chance on unrewarded. Again, this was not found to vary by source condition. Overall, results suggest no fundamental barrier to non-human primates’ use of information from a social source. However, the apparent struggle to learn from the absence of rewards hints at a difficulty with using information acquired from unsuccessful attempts; this could be linked to the limited evidence for cumulative culture in non-human primates.

Alerting effects occur in simple-But not in compound-Visual search tasks.

Alerting (e.g., a brief brightening of the screen just before a target display) is known to facilitate visual search in simple tasks that involve the single step of detecting a pop-out item within a stimulus array. What is not known is whether alerting facilitates performance also in compound search tasks which involve two steps: First, locate the pop-out item, then identify a detail of that item. In a series of five experiments, we show that alerting facilitates performance of each component of a compound task when tested separately, (Experiments 2a and 2b) but not when the components are combined in a compound task (Experiment 1). Yet, alerting does facilitate performance in a compound task when the pop-out item is displayed in the same location on successive trials (Experiment 3). We hypothesized that such spatial repetition allows attention to linger at that location, thus allowing the first component (locate the pop-out item) to be bypassed. In practice, this turns the compound task into a simple task. That hypothesis was confirmed in Experiment 4 using a reorienting cue to shift the focus of attention to another location. An overall account of the absence of alerting effects in compound search tasks is proposed in terms of the temporal relationship between a period of enhancement rendered as an ex-Gaussian function and the hypothesized sequence of processing stages in visual search. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Multisensory Rather than Unisensory Representations Contribute to Statistical Context Learning in Tactile Search.

Using a combination of behavioral and EEG measures in a tactile odd-one-out search task with collocated visual items, we investigated the mechanisms underlying facilitation of search by repeated (vs. nonrepeated) spatial distractor-target configurations ("contextual cueing") when either the tactile (same-modality) or the visual array (different-modality) context was predictive of the location of the tactile singleton target. Importantly, in both conditions, the stimulation was multisensory, consisting of tactile plus visual items, although the target was singled out in the tactile modality and so the visual items were task-irrelevant. We found that when the predictive context was tactile, facilitation of search RTs by repeated configurations was accompanied by, and correlated with, enhanced lateralized ERP markers of pre-attentive (N1, N2) and, respectively focal-attentional processing (contralateral delay activity) not only over central ("somatosensory"), but also posterior ("visual") electrode sites, although the ERP effects were less marked over visual cortex. A similar pattern-of facilitated RTs and enhanced lateralized (N2 and contralateral delay activity) ERP components-was found when the predictive context was visual, although the ERP effects were less marked over somatosensory cortex. These findings indicate that both somatosensory and visual cortical regions contribute to the more efficient processing of the tactile target in repeated stimulus arrays, although their involvement is differentially weighted depending on the sensory modality that contains the predictive information.

Pupillary responses to differences in luminance, color and set size.

The pupil responds to a salient stimulus appearing in the environment, in addition to its modulation by global luminance. These pupillary responses can be evoked by visual or auditory stimuli, scaled with stimulus salience, and enhanced by multisensory presentation. In addition, pupil size is modulated by various visual stimulus attributes, such as color, area, and motion. However, research that concurrently examines the influence of different factors on pupillary responses is limited. To explore how presentation of multiple visual stimuli influences human pupillary responses, we presented arrays of visual stimuli and systematically varied their luminance, color, and set size. Saliency level, computed by the saliency model, systematically changed with set size across all conditions, with higher saliency levels in larger set sizes. Pupillary constriction responses were evoked by the appearance of visual stimuli, with larger pupillary responses observed in larger set size. These effects were pronounced even though the global luminance level was unchanged using isoluminant chromatic stimuli. Furthermore, larger pupillary constriction responses were obtained in the blue, compared to other color conditions. Together, we argue that both cortical and subcortical areas contribute to the observed pupillary constriction modulated by set size and color.

Brain activity in the prefrontal cortex during cancelation tasks: Effects of the stimulus array

Cancelation tasks have been widely used to neurologically assess selective attention and visual search in various clinical and research settings. However, there is still a lack of evidence regarding the effect of differences in array conditions on brain activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and its association with developmental characteristics. This study employed cancelation tasks to investigate the effects of varying array conditions on oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations. Data from 24 healthy adults were analyzed based on performance during two-block-design type of cancelation tasks with different array conditions (i.e., structured array vs. random array). Performance was assessed based on the number of correct responses, incorrect responses, hit ratios, and performance scores (PS); while PFC activity was examined using near-infrared spectroscopy. In addition, characteristics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were assessed using the ADHD-Rating Scale-IV (ADHD-RS-IV). Results revealed that the numbers of correct responses and PS were higher in the random array, but there was no difference in the incorrect responses and hit ratio. Similarly, we observed that the oxy-Hb concentration in the PFC significantly increased during the task. Additionally, in the structured array, a significant relationship between task performance and characteristics of ADHD was found but not in the random array. Our results regarding the above-mentioned changes in oxy-Hb concentration suggest that the PFC region is involved in selective attention. We also found that cancelation tasks in a structured array may be useful in evaluating the characteristics of ADHD.

Diversion of Attention Leads to Conflict between Concurrently Attended Stimuli, Not Delayed Orienting to the Object of Interest.

The control processes that guide attention to a visual-search target can result in the selection of an irrelevant object with similar features (a distractor). Once attention is captured by such a distractor, search for a subsequent target is momentarily impaired if the two stimuli appear at different locations. The textbook explanation for this impairment is based on the notion of an indivisible focus of attention that moves to the distractor, illuminates a nontarget that subsequently appears at that location, and then moves to the target once the nontarget is rejected. Here, we show that such delayed orienting to the target does not underlie the behavioral cost of distraction. Observers identified a color-defined target appearing within the second of two stimulus arrays. The first array contained irrelevant items, including one that shared the target's color. ERPs were examined to test two predictions stemming from the textbook serial-orienting hypothesis. Namely, when the target and distractor appear at different locations, (1) the target should elicit delayed selection activity relative to same-location trials, and (2) the nontarget search item appearing at the distractor location should elicit selection activity that precedes selection activity tied to the target. Here, the posterior contralateral N2 component was used to track selection of each of these search-array items and the previous distractor. The results supported neither prediction above, thereby disconfirming the serial-orienting hypothesis. Overall, the results show that the behavioral costs of distraction are caused by perceptual and postperceptual competition between concurrently attended target and nontarget stimuli.

Color Affects Recognition of Emoticon Expressions.

In computer-mediated communication, emoticons are conventionally rendered in yellow. Previous studies demonstrated that colors evoke certain affective meanings, and face color modulates perceived emotion. We investigated whether color variation affects the recognition of emoticon expressions. Japanese participants were presented with emoticons depicting four basic emotions (Happy, Sad, Angry, Surprised) and a Neutral expression, each rendered in eight colors. Four conditions (E1–E4) were employed in the lab-based experiment; E5, with an additional participant sample, was an online replication of the critical E4. In E1, colored emoticons were categorized in a 5AFC task. In E2–E5, stimulus affective meaning was assessed using visual scales with anchors corresponding to each emotion. The conditions varied in stimulus arrays: E2: light gray emoticons; E3: colored circles; E4 and E5: colored emoticons. The affective meaning of Angry and Sad emoticons was found to be stronger when conferred in warm and cool colors, respectively, the pattern highly consistent between E4 and E5. The affective meaning of colored emoticons is regressed to that of achromatic expression counterparts and decontextualized color. The findings provide evidence that affective congruency of the emoticon expression and the color it is rendered in facilitates recognition of the depicted emotion, augmenting the conveyed emotional message.

Development of superimposing electroretinogram for identifying the retinal layer causing a decline in visual sensitivity at arbitrary points on the retina

AbstractPurposeAlthough the decline in visual sensitivity of the retina can be measured by microperimetry, it is difficult to identify the retinal layer causing this decline. We investigated cryptogenic diseases, such as macular dystrophy, by developing an electroretinogram (ERG) superimposing seven multifocal hexagonal stimulus arrays on the background of a multifocal array.MethodsThis apparatus is made of illumination and photographic optical systems separated by a mirror with a hole. In addition, it is made of a microperimetry optical system and an ERG optical system separated by a cold mirror. The device consists of an Edmund infrared camera EO‐50231, a lens with a 25‐mm focal length, a halogen lamp, an objective lens with a 50‐mm focal length, 4 double convex lenses with a 100‐mm focal length, 2 aperture stops, a mirror, a 45° cold mirror, an 8‐inch monitor and an artificial eye. We deployed a differential amplifier with gain 10, high‐pass filter with a 21.2‐Hz cut‐off frequency, 60‐Hz notch filter and two non‐inverting amplifiers with gains 1001 and 11. Moreover, we used the National Instruments' I/O device USB‐6212, the Nihon Kohden's plate electrode NE‐113A, the Nihon Kohden's electromagnetic shield sheet Y049 and the LabVIEW 2018 software for data retrieval. The background of the ERG software consists of 11 layers and 330 arrays and uses seven arrays as the examination target. The centre of these seven arrays has the same area, with an array directly placed under it on the background; and the system superimposes these arrays. We developed the ERG software, which was able to display the adjusted background from 18.0 to 30.0 mm and it almost did not have the delay time of a flicker stimulation as the frequency was changed from 10 to 100 Hz. The ERG software was shown on an HP Pavilion 32‐inch HDR display.ResultsAt the arbitrary position on the fundus, the superimposing ERG was able to measure all waveforms: a wave, b wave, c wave, and photopic negative response. Cone ERG and bright flash ERG were good.ConclusionsIt is expected that the superimposing ERG function would identify the retinal layer causing visual alterations at specific points throughout the retina. Further work towards pre‐clinical animal testing and clinical evaluation are required.