Stimuli Responsiveness Research Articles

Cuboidal Deformation of Multimaterial Composites Prepared by 3-D Printing of Liquid Crystalline Elastomers.

Multimaterial 3-D printing (3DP) of isotropic (IsoE) and liquid crystalline elastomers (LCE) yields spatially programmed elements that undergo a cuboidal shape transformation upon heating. The thermomechanical deformation of 3DP elements is determined by the geometry and extent of the isotropic and anisotropic regions. The synthesis and experimental characterization of the 3DP elements are complemented by finite element analysis (FEA). Calculations emphasize that the cuboidal deformation of the myriad 3DP elements is a manifestation of local stress gradients imparted by local control of the material composition and anisotropy. Varying the rectilinear spatial distribution of the multimaterial elastomer composites produces complex, multistable states that provide insights into how stress gradients drive multimaterial elastomer actuation. The thermomechanical stimuli response of the multimaterial elements is explored as a tactile element.

Self-Healing Supramolecular Flexible Network of Zn(II): Exploring Chemo-Responsiveness, Antimicrobial Efficiency, and Variable Microelectronic Device Performances.

The Zn(II)-supramolecular metallogel (i.e., Zn-Py) of 2,6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid was prepared through the addition of a metal source and 2,6-pyridinedicarboxylic acid as a low molecular weight gelator. The Zn-Py metallogel encapsulated N,N'-dimethylformamide as gel-immobilized polar aprotic solvent media. The mechanical features of the synthesized metallogel were investigated. The thixotropic behavior of the Zn-Py metallogel was also analyzed. The microscopic feature of the metallogel was imaged through FESEM and TEM studies. The EDS pattern of the metallogel ratified the role of different gel-building chemical constituents. The stimuli responsiveness of the metallogel was also tested. The metallogel-forming mechanistic protocol was visualized through FTIR and ESI mass spectroscopic analyses. The bioeffectiveness, i.e., antimicrobial potency, of Zn-Py was also studied. The antimicrobial efficiency against both Gram +ve and Gram -ve bacteria including Salmonella typhimurium (MTCC 98), Escherichia coli (MTCC 1667), Bacillus cereus (ATCC 13061), Listeria monocytogenes (MTCC 657), and Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 96) was critically analyzed. The FESEM images of the live bacteria and damaged bacteria due to the action of the metallogel were experimentally investigated. The Zn-Py metallogel was also used to fabricate the heterojunction and Schottky-type photodetectors to show their excellent light-matter interaction and their potentiality as active material in optoelectronics. The electrical parameters of semiconductor diodes such as the p-n junction and Schottky diode fabricated by the synthesized Zn-Py metallogel were investigated. Outcomes of the experimental investigation demonstrated that the tested metallogel effectively showed p-n junction diode parameters, especially with the ideality factor (η) of 1.3 under a dark environment. This fabricated device efficiently depicted a great ON/OFF ratio of 33.4 at a reverse bias voltage of -2 V. The metal-semiconductor-metal (M-S-M) junction-type Schottky barrier diode was also fabricated using the Zn-Py metallogel where the Au/Zn-Py metallogel/Au-based device fabrication strategy was implemented.

Three‐Photon Upconversion Luminescence of Gd2O2S: Ho3+, Er3+ for High‐Sensitivity FIR Thermometer and Multimode Anti‐Counterfeiting

AbstractThe performance control and multidimensional applications of upconversion phosphor have become the hotspot and difficulty in current research and application due to the complex luminescence mechanism. Based on the efficient Gd2O2S: Er3+ upconversion luminescence of 1550 nm excitation and design strategy for co‐doped materials, the multicolor (light green to red) and multifunctional upconversion phosphor Gd2O2S: Er3+, Ho3+ is successfully prepared. Benefiting from the clear mechanism of three‐photon upconversion and energy transfer after co‐doping, the novel applications of Gd2O2S: Er3+, Ho3+ can greatly be expanded. This phosphor can be well used as a fluorescence thermometer due to the higher sensitivity (2.46% K−1@170 K), wider temperature sensing range (170–267 K, Sr > 1% K−1), and greater color variation (Δx = 0.2416, Δy = 0.2483) relative to Gd2O2S: Er3+ and other same type of material. In addition, multiple patterns and encoded outputs are also effectively achieved by the combination of phosphors under multiple light stimuli response. This shows the greater application potential of phosphor in the fields of anti‐counterfeiting and information encryption. This study can also provide a new view to study the more high‐performance and multifunctional upconversion phosphor.

Design and Characterization of Stimuli Responsive Nanohydrogel as Wound Dressing Material Impregnated with Zinc Oxide and Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Recent advances in wound care have been propelled by the integration of stimuli responsive materials and innovative technologies, enabling the development of responsive and adaptive solutions. This paper presents a Stimuli responsive Nanohydrogel as wound dressing material that leverages the unique properties of zinc oxide (ZnO) and iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles to enhance wound healing and provide real-time monitoring capabilities. Material is designed using a hydrogel matrix, which is embedded with tracking key wound parameters, such as pH, temperature, moisture levels, and glucose concentration. Zinc oxide(ZnO) and iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) nanoparticles provides the material with enhanced antimicrobial properties, promoting a sterile healing environment and reducing the risk of infections. Additionally, these nanoparticles support tissue regeneration and possess anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to accelerated wound healing. Stimuli-responsive nanohydrogel works as a control unit, allowing for dynamic adjustments in drug release and moisture retention to match the wound's specific needs. This responsive feedback mechanism minimizes the need for frequent dressing changes, thereby reducing patient discomfort and healthcare costs. The stimuli responsive dressing material offers a promising solution for improved clinical outcomes and patient quality of life.

Bottom‐up Synthesis of Piezoelectric Covalent Triazine‐based Nanotube for Hydrogen Peroxide Production from Water and Air

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are nanoscale tubular materials with superior mechanical strength and electronic properties. However, the conventional CNTs are inherently non‐piezoelectric, mainly due to the lack of polar structures with pure carbon elements. The direct synthesis of fully conjugated and polarized organic nanotubes with desired piezoelectric properties remains a challenge. Herein, we report the bottom‐up synthesis of a new type of covalent triazine‐based nanotube (CTN‐1) as a novel piezoelectric material. The CTN‐1 comprises of high surface area, nitrogen‐rich and fully conjugated structure, which provides a series of merits for piezoelectric catalytic processes. These structural features combined with one‐dimensional tubular morphology endow CTN‐1 with excellent mechanical stimuli response and thus displaying prominent piezoelectric properties via pronounced nanocurvature effect. We further show that the CTN‐1 enables the efficient synthesis of H2O2 from water in the air via mechanical energy conversion, with an excellent piezocatalytic H2O2 evolution rate of 4115 μmol g‐1 h‐1, which exceeds all other reported piezoelectric materials. The piezocatalysis by the CTN‐1 can be practically integrated into a self‐Fenton system, which exhibits excellent pollutant degradation capability. This work demonstrates the enormous potential of a new type of piezoelectric synthetic nanotube from organic frameworks for the in‐situ synthesis valuable chemicals.

Bottom-up Synthesis of Piezoelectric Covalent Triazine-based Nanotube for Hydrogen Peroxide Production from Water and Air.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are nanoscale tubular materials with superior mechanical strength and electronic properties. However, the conventional CNTs are inherently non-piezoelectric, mainly due to the lack of polar structures with pure carbon elements. The direct synthesis of fully conjugated and polarized organic nanotubes with desired piezoelectric properties remains a challenge. Herein, we report the bottom-up synthesis of a new type of covalent triazine-based nanotube (CTN-1) as a novel piezoelectric material. The CTN-1 comprises of high surface area, nitrogen-rich and fully conjugated structure, which provides a series of merits for piezoelectric catalytic processes. These structural features combined with one-dimensional tubular morphology endow CTN-1 with excellent mechanical stimuli response and thus displaying prominent piezoelectric properties via pronounced nanocurvature effect. We further show that the CTN-1 enables the efficient synthesis of H2O2 from water in the air via mechanical energy conversion, with an excellent piezocatalytic H2O2 evolution rate of 4115 μmol g-1 h-1, which exceeds all other reported piezoelectric materials. The piezocatalysis by the CTN-1 can be practically integrated into a self-Fenton system, which exhibits excellent pollutant degradation capability. This work demonstrates the enormous potential of a new type of piezoelectric synthetic nanotube from organic frameworks for the in-situ synthesis valuable chemicals.

Recent Development of Fibrous Hydrogels: Properties, Applications and Perspectives.

Fibrous hydrogels (FGs), characterized by a 3D network structure made from prefabricated fibers, fibrils and polymeric materials, have emerged as significant materials in numerous fields. However, the challenge of balancing mechanical properties and functions hinders their further development. This article reviews the main advantages of FGs, including enhanced mechanical properties, high conductivity, high antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, stimulus responsiveness, and an extracellular matrix (ECM)-like structure. It also discusses the influence of assembly methods, such as fiber cross-linking, interfacial treatments of fibers with hydrogel matrices, and supramolecular assembly, on the diverse functionalities of FGs. Furthermore, the mechanisms for improving the performance of the above five aspects are discussed, such as creating ion carrier channels for conductivity, in situ gelation of drugs to enhance antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, and entanglement and hydrophobic interactions between fibers, resulting in ECM-like structured FGs. In addition, this review addresses the application of FGs in sensors, dressings, and tissue scaffolds based on the synergistic effects of optimizing the performance. Finally, challenges and future applications of FGs are discussed, providing a theoretical foundation and new insights for the design and application of cutting-edge FGs.

Exciplex Emission in the POSS Possessing Two Kinds of Luminophores

AbstractHere we report the synthesis and luminescent properties of the modified polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) that possesses two types of luminophores, cyanobenzene and N,N‐diethylaniline for inducing significant emission not only from each dye but also from molecular interactions on the POSS core. From the optical measurements in the diluted solution, we observed both locally‐excited emission and excimer emission originating from intramolecular interactions assisted by POSS. Moreover, highly‐efficient exciplex emission was observed from the thin film, indicating that the interaction between luminophores easily occurs in the solid state by accumulating two kinds of molecules in the single POSS molecule. Finally, we also found that the modified POSS showed a unique acid responsiveness which can be caused by protonation at two types of amino moieties. In this manuscript, it is shown that POSS is able to play various roles at the same time: recruiting excited molecules to form exciplexes, suppressing concentration quenching in the solid state, and imparting stimulus responsiveness to exciplexes.

Tunable macroscopic self-healing of supramolecular gel through host–guest inclusion

Supramolecular gels (SGs) consisted of noncovalent cross-linking network structures are fascinating due to their efficient energy dissipation and reversible self-healing properties. However, it is unknown how the noncovalent interactions alter the macroscopic self-healing and mechanical properties of SGs. Herein, the peculiar nature of SGs manufactured by combining covalent and noncovalent (host–guest inclusion of β-cyclodextrin and C16 hydrophobic chain) cross-linking structures was studied and compared with covalent cross-linking preformed particle gels. The macroscopic self-healing behaviors, rheology, mechanical tensile properties, as well as the tunable mechanisms of self-healing were explored by visual inspection, rheological, and atomic force microscopy probing methods. The results show that the SGs exhibit excellent self-healing efficiency and mechanical strength after interfacial cutting. Moreover, the SGs exhibited excellent mechanical tensile properties, including loading–unloading, successive loading–unloading, and recovery loading–unloading tensile performances. Notably, the macroscopic self-healing of SGs has good tunability by changing the covalent and noncovalent crosslinker contents and salt contents. This peculiar phenomenon is attributed to certain host–guest inclusion forces (4.7 and 0.3 nN) between different SGs under the distilled and high-salinity water conditions, respectively. This study is beneficial for the development of stimuli–response supramolecular gels in different applications, such as oil recovery in fractured reservoirs.

Recent Advances of Organic Cocrystals in Emerging Cutting-Edge Properties and Applications.

Organic cocrystals, representing one type of new functional materials, have gathered significant interest in various engineering areas. Owing to their diverse stacking modes, rich intermolecular interactions and abundant functional components, the physicochemical properties of organic cocrystals can be tailored to meet different requirements and exhibit novel characteristics. The past few years have witnessed the rapid development of organic cocrystals in both fundamental characteristics and various applications. Beyond the typical properties like ambipolarity, emission tuning ability, ferroelectricity, etc. that are previously well demonstrated, many novel, impressive and cutting-edge properties and applications of cocrystals are also emerged and advanced recently. Especially during the nearest five years, photothermal conversion, room-temperature phosphorescence, thermally activated delay fluorescence, circularly polarized luminescence, organic solid-state lasers, near-infrared sensing, photocatalysis, batteries, and stimuli responses have been reported. In this review, these new properties are carefully summarized. Besides, some neoteric architecture and methodologies, such as host-guest structures and machine learning-based screening, are introduced. Finally, the potential future developments and expectations for organic cocrystals are discussed for further investigations on multiple functions and applications.

Recent Advances of Organic Cocrystals in Emerging Cutting‐Edge Properties and Applications

AbstractOrganic cocrystals, representing one type of new functional materials, have gathered significant interest in various engineering areas. Owing to their diverse stacking modes, rich intermolecular interactions and abundant functional components, the physicochemical properties of organic cocrystals can be tailored to meet different requirements and exhibit novel characteristics. The past few years have witnessed the rapid development of organic cocrystals in both fundamental characteristics and various applications. Beyond the typical properties like ambipolarity, emission tuning ability, ferroelectricity, etc. that are previously well demonstrated, many novel, impressive and cutting‐edge properties and applications of cocrystals are also emerged and advanced recently. Especially during the nearest five years, photothermal conversion, room‐temperature phosphorescence, thermally activated delay fluorescence, circularly polarized luminescence, organic solid‐state lasers, near‐infrared sensing, photocatalysis, batteries, and stimuli responses have been reported. In this review, these new properties are carefully summarized. Besides, some neoteric architecture and methodologies, such as host–guest structures and machine learning‐based screening, are introduced. Finally, the potential future developments and expectations for organic cocrystals are discussed for further investigations on multiple functions and applications.

Single‐Luminophore Molecular Engineering for Rapidly Phototunable Solid‐State Luminescence

AbstractSmart materials enabling emission intensity or wavelength tuning by light stimulus have attracted attention in cutting‐edge fields. However, due to the general limitation of the dense molecular stacking (in solid states, especially in crystals) on photoresponsivity, constructing rapidly phototunable solid‐state luminescent systems remains challenging. Herein, we present a new luminophore that serves as both a photoresponsive and a luminous group with enhanced conformational freedom to attain this goal, namely, relying on photoexcitation‐induced molecular conformational change of an ionized persulfurated arene based on weak intermolecular aliphatic C−H⋅⋅⋅π interaction. Together with the phosphorescence characteristic of the molecule itself, rapidly enhanced phosphorescence upon irradiation can be observed in a series of phase states, like solution state, crystal, and amorphous state, especially with a high photoresponsive rate of 0.033 s−1 in crystal state that is superior to the relevant reported cases. Moreover, a rapidly phototunable afterglow effect is achieved by extending this molecule into some polymer‐based doping systems, endowing the system with unique dynamic imaging and fast photopatterning capabilities. This single‐luminophore molecular engineering and underlying mechanism have implications for building other condensed functional materials, principally for those with stimuli responses in solid states.

Heterostructure of Hydrogen‐Bonded Organic Frameworks for White Light Emission and Information Encryption

AbstractTwo dumbbell‐shaped building blocks (TMB and TMBT), featuring methyl benzoate groups as hydrogen bond units, are selected to construct heterostructures of HOFs, aiming to achieve multiple functions including white luminescence, stimulus‐response behavior, as well as application in information encryption. TMB molecules are self‐assembled to form a flexible HOF (X‐HOF‐8) in p‐xylene, containing solvent channels and blue fluorescence. Upon removal of guests, it can transform into a nonporous crystal with gray fluorescence. In contrast, TMBT forms a guest‐free HOF (X‐HOF‐9) displaying orange fluorescence. They could form bulk heterojunction (BHJ) HOFs with energy transfer from TMB to TMBT, exhibiting composition‐dependent fluorescent color. Notably, white emission can be achieved in BHJ HOFs and can be converted to gray fluorescence upon guest removal; subsequently, white fluorescence is restored upon re‐capturing guests. Furthermore, rod‐like triblock heterojunction (THJ) HOFs can also be constructed, which exhibit regulatory behavior in response to gaining or losing guests. The unique luminescent characteristics and stimulus responsiveness of these HOFs make them an excellent platform for applications in anticounterfeit. This represents the pioneering achievement of white light emission in a BHJ HOF, as well as the groundbreaking realization of a THJ HOF with remarkable exciting response characteristics.

Self-Repeatable snapping liquid–crystal-elastomer actuator

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) show potential for use in sensors and robotics owing to their reversible stimuli response. However, current actuators have limitations such as low power and slow recovery. Incorporating snap-through transitions induced by mechanical instability into motion can enhance the speed and power of soft actuators. However, the snap-through transitions’ single-shot motion response without external assistance at complicates their application to continuous and self-repeatable actuation. This study introduces a promising and simple approach for creating a rapid and self-repeatedly regulated snapping motion in an LCE actuator by confining the LCE film in a frame. We explore the confinement effect of a freestanding pre-curved LCE film that smoothly changes its bending direction and shows anticlastic buckling. Interestingly, a self-repeating snapping motion is generated by attaching a rigid film onto the LCE film, thereby inducing synclastic deformation. Remarkably, the up-and-down bending snapping motion occurs at a very high speed (within 30 ms) and is self-regulated depending on the temperature of the bottom surface. By utilizing this thermally responsive snapping LCE actuator, we successfully demonstrate an organic-based novel fire alarm and a self-propelled soft-walk mechanism.

Assembly and jamming of polar additive-swollen microgels at liquid–liquid interfaces: From inverse Pickering emulsions to functional materials

HypothesisPoly-N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAM)-based microgels have garnered significant interest as effective soft particulate stabilizers because of their deformability and functionality. However, the inherent hydrophilic nature of microgel restricts their potential use in stabilizing water-in-oil (W/O) Pickering emulsions. Employing diverse polar additives can improve the hydrophobicity of microgels, thus unlocking new possibilities in inverse Pickering emulsion formation and materials fabrication. ExperimentsDifferent types of microgels were generated using free-radical precipitation polymerization with tailored physiochemical properties. The effect of various polar additives on the wettability, adsorption kinetics, and interfacial coverage of microgels was systematically investigated. Additive-swollen microgels were utilized to stabilize inverse W/O Pickering emulsions, which served as templates to develop functional materials with stimuli responsiveness and hierarchical structures. FindingsAdditive-swollen PNIPAM-based microgels exhibited enhanced hydrophobicity and superior emulsifying capability, which spontaneously assembled and jammed at oil–water interfaces, resulting in a significant interfacial energy decrease. The additive-swollen microgels formed a tightly packed, elastic, and responsive microgel monolayer. The feasibility of the strategy was verified by preparing various inverse W/O Pickering emulsions and high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs). More importantly, this straightforward formation strategy of microgel-stabilized inverse W/O Pickering emulsions offered a novel platform to create functional materials with customized inner structures from microscale (e.g., responsive core–shell hydrogel microspheres and colloidosomes) to macroscale (e.g., hierarchical porous materials) that can be used for potential applications, such as recyclable contaminant removal and droplet manipulation.

Advances and Functional Integration of Hydrogel Composites as Drug Delivery Systems in Contemporary Dentistry.

This study explores the recent advances of and functional insights into hydrogel composites, materials that have gained significant attention for their versatile applications across various fields, including contemporary dentistry. Hydrogels, known for their high water content and biocompatibility, are inherently soft but often limited by mechanical fragility. Key areas of focus include the customization of hydrogel composites for biomedical applications, such as drug delivery systems, wound dressings, and tissue engineering scaffolds, where improved mechanical properties and bioactivity are critical. In dentistry, hydrogels are utilized for drug delivery systems targeting oral diseases, dental adhesives, and periodontal therapies due to their ability to adhere to the mucosa, provide localized treatment, and support tissue regeneration. Their unique properties, such as mucoadhesion, controlled drug release, and stimuli responsiveness, make them ideal candidates for treating oral conditions. This review highlights both experimental breakthroughs and theoretical insights into the structure-property relationships within hydrogel composites, aiming to guide future developments in the design and application of these multifunctional materials in dentistry. Ultimately, hydrogel composites represent a promising frontier for advancing materials science with far-reaching implications in healthcare, environmental technology, and beyond.

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The syntheses of poly[2]catenane gels reported to date all rely on the polymer as the backbone. We reported poly[2]catenane gels prepared by entirely sequential self‐assembly of small molecules via noncovalent and dynamic covalent bonds. Due to the presence of hydrogen bonds in the poly[2]catenane gels, the gels also possessed stimulus responsiveness and self‐healing properties. More details are discussed in the article by Ji et al. on pages 2699—2704. image

Advances in Functional Cellulose Hydrogels as Electrolytes for Flexible Zinc-Ion Batteries.

Zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) emerge as leading candidates for a flexible energy storage system, distinguished by high capacity, affordability, and inherent safety. The integration of hydrogel electrolytes, particularly those with saturated aqueous solvents, has significantly enhanced the electrochemical performance of ZIBs while preserving their essential flexibility. Nonetheless, challenges in electrochemical performance under specific conditions highlight the nascent stage of this technology, with numerous technical hurdles awaiting resolution. Addressing these challenges, recent investigations have leveraged the unique properties of cellulose hydrogel-namely, its exceptional toughness, tensile strength, extreme temperature resilience, stimulus responsiveness, and self-healing capabilities-to innovate multifunctional flexible zinc-based batteries. This paper conducts a comprehensive review of the physicochemical attributes of cellulose hydrogel electrolytes within ZIBs. We thoroughly analyze their performance under diverse environmental conditions, offering insights into the current landscape and their future potential. By examining these aspects, we aim to underscore the developmental prospects and the challenges that lie ahead for hydrogel electrolytes in ZIBs, paving the way for further advancement in this promising field.

Polymorphic Supramolecular Therapeutic Platforms with Precise Dye/Drug Ratio to Perform Synergistic Chemo-Photo Anti-Tumor Therapy and Long-Term Immune Protection.

Malignant tumor has become one of the hellish killers threatening the health of people around the world, its diagnosis and treatment has become the concerns of public. However, the optimal therapeutic dose, undesired side-effect, and long-term immune activation werekey and bottleneck problems in tumor treatment. Herein, different batches of supramolecular therapeutic platforms, including vesicles, spherical nanoparticles, and cylindrical nanorods, with precise ratios of dye to drug (1:2) and multiple stimulus responsiveness wereconstructed by host-guest complexation between cyanine-camptothecin conjugates (IR780-CPT2) and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) pendent hydrophilic copolymers. The reduction responsiveness, near-infrared photothermal conversion and singlet oxygen (1O2) generation performances endowed these platforms excellent cancer cells killing effect in both of in vitro cellular experiments and in vivo mice models. More importantly, without affecting the weight of mice, the maturation of dendritic cells, proliferation of T cells, up-regulation of high mobility group protein B1, and reduction of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells weredetected after employing a synergistic chemo-photo therapy, demonstrating the body's immune effect was successfully activated. Thus, during the treatment of primary tumor, the distal tumor was also inhibited. Webelieve this work could provide a distinctive way to fabricate supramolecular theranostic platforms with different morphologies and improve antitumor and antimetastasis capabilities.

Reinforced Nacre-Like MXene/Sodium Alginate Composite Films for Bioinspired Actuators Driven by Moisture and Sunlight.

MXene-based soft actuators have attracted increasing attention and shown competitive performance in various intelligent devices such as supercapacitors, bionic robots and artificial muscles. However, the development of robust MXene-based actuators with multi-stimuli responsiveness remains challenging. In this study, a nacre-like structure soft actuator based on MXene and sodium alginate (SA) composite films is prepared using a straightforward solvent casting self-assembly method, which not only enhances the mechanical performance (tensile strength of 72MPa) but also diversifies the stimuli responsiveness of the material. The composite actuators can be powered by external stimuli from renewable energy sources, from moisture inducing a maximum bending angle of 190 degrees at a relative humidity (RH) of 91%, and sunlight irradiation generating a maximum curvature of 1.45 cm-1 under 100mW cm-2. The feasibility of practical applications, including moisture-responsive flowers and walkers, sunlight-responsive oscillators, and smart switches, is demonstrated through comprehensive experimental characterization and performance evaluation. The work presented here provides insight into the design of robust actuators via the utilization and conversion of environmentally renewable energy sources.