Steep Rare Earth Element Research Articles

Origin and evolution of lithospheric mantle beneath the juvenile Arabian–Nubian Shield: Evidence from the Natash peridotite xenoliths, Southern Eastern Desert, Egypt

Compared with the Archean cratonic mantle, much less is known about the genesis and composition of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) beneath the juvenile terranes. In this study, we present petrology and mineral chemistry analyses of peridotite xenoliths carried by Cretaceous volcanics from the Natash area in the western Arabian–Nubian Shield (ANS). Combined with mantle xenoliths from the eastern ANS, we aim to constrain the nature, origin, and evolution of SCLM beneath the juvenile terrane. The Natash peridotite xenoliths, including well-preserved clinopyroxene (Cpx) and spinel (Sp), are categorized into two groups. Group A peridotites display exceptionally high Mg# (molar100 × Mg/(Mg + Fetotal)) in Cpx (95.6–96.7) and Cr# (molar100 × Cr/(Cr + Al)) in Sp (45.5–51.7), signifying a high degree of melting and refractory nature. Cpx in Group A demonstrates low Ti/Eu (532–1785) and high (La/Yb)N (5.34–26.29) ratios, indicative of carbonatitic metasomatism. Comparatively, Group B peridotites exhibit relatively high Mg# in Cpx (93.8–95.5) and Cr# in Sp (15.9–26.2), indicating a low degree of melting and fertile nature. Cpx trace element patterns subdivide Group B into three sub-groups. Cpx in Group B1 are characterized by high Ti/Eu (3934–5622) but low (La/Yb)N (0.91–2.98), implying silicate melt metasomatism. Both Groups B2 and B3 Cpx show steep rare earth element (REE) patterns, negative anomalies in high field-strength elements, and high (La/Yb)N (3.62–7.57). However, Cpx in B3 exhibit higher Ti/Eu ratios and water-soluble element contents than those in B2 peridotites. In addition, the spoon-shaped REE patterns are prominently unique to Cpx in Group B3. Hence, it is inferred that Group B2 were influenced by carbonatitic melts, whereas the evolved small-volume CO2-H2O-rich fluids infiltrated into Group B3 samples. Furthermore, the high Sr contents (71–404 ppm) but low 87Sr/86Sr (0.7003–0.7034) ratios of Cpx in Natash peridotites suggest that the various metasomatic agents all originated from the asthenosphere. Collectively, the Natash peridotite xenoliths exhibit similar nature and metasomatism processes with those from Cenozoic volcanics in the eastern ANS, and they all show affinity to continental peridotites. The pMELTS simulation suggests that the refractory peridotites have a high melting pressure (typically >3 GPa), while the fertile samples register a low melting pressure. Consequently, we infer that the SCLM beneath the juvenile ANS was formed through the cooling of upwelling asthenosphere, incorporating the ancient mantle fragments, and subsequently underwent asthenosphere-derived carbonatitic and silicate melt/fluid metasomatisms.

Relating steep REE patterns in modern volcanism and the development of an amphibole-rich middle to lower crust at the Colombian magmatic arc: A geochemical and receiver functions approach

In this study, I integrated geochemical modeling and receiver functions to test for magmatic fractionation above a garnet pyroxenite arc root structure beneath the Colombian magmatic arc (Northern Andes), as a feasible mechanism to explain the record of steep rare earth element (REE) patterns in modern volcanism and the development of an amphibole-rich middle to lower crust. Magmatic fractionation was evaluated through the geochemical modeling of volcanic rocks that show steep REE patterns with high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios. A well-defined REE geochemical trend was accomplished for all samples at temperature and pressure estimates that are consistent with middle to lower crustal conditions (∼825-935 °C, ∼10.0–14.7 kbar). From the integration of receiver functions, after analyzing the middle to lower crustal signals at multiple stations on top of active volcanoes, the deep crust of the arc is interpreted as a seismically fast (Vs: ≥4.5 km/s) and dense arc root (≥3.3 g/cm3), above which, lies a low-velocity zone with a horizontal to tilted anisotropy axis. This anisotropic low-velocity region is proposed as a partially molten domain related to the evolution of the arc system. The proposed magmatic fractionating model explains satisfactorily the genesis of rocks with steep REE patterns and high Sr/Y (>40) and La/Yb (>20) ratios as a counterpart for a clinopyroxene amphibolite residuum composing deep levels of the arc crust. I suggest that these fractionating processes are playing an important role in the construction of the Colombian magmatic arc, enabling the formation of a dense garnet pyroxenite arc root, a genetically related amphibole-rich middle to lower crust, and the derivation of steep REE patterns with high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios in the modern Colombian volcanism.

Porphyry Copper Deposit Formation: Identifying Garnet and Amphibole Fractionation With REE Pattern Curvature Modeling

AbstractPorphyry copper ore‐forming intrusions are distinguished from barren arc magmas by high oxidation state and “adakitic” high Sr/Y and La/Yb. Controversy over petrogenesis of adakites has centered on ambiguities in interpretation of their steep rare earth element (REE) patterns, and on whether garnet participates in their petrogenesis. Lambda (λ) coefficients deconvolute subtle differences in REE pattern curvature, providing a more quantitative method to explore mineral fractionation processes. Here, we use trace element and numerical λ coefficient modeling to assess the relative influence of amphibole, garnet, and plagioclase in the petrogenesis of porphyry ore‐forming intrusions. We find that garnet‐fractionation trends are not evident in REE patterns of many adakitic porphyry‐forming intrusions. Instead, porphyry‐forming intrusions in the western Pacific and Eocene porphyry‐forming intrusions in northern Chile have REE patterns consistent with a garnet‐free, amphibole‐dominated cumulate. Traditional element ratios such at Dy/Dy*, LaN/YbN, and DyN/YbN are poor discriminants for garnet or amphibole fractionation.

Modern-style plate tectonics manifested by the late Neoarchean TTG-sanukitoid suite from the Datong-Huai'an Complex, Trans-North China Orogen

When modern-style plate tectonics started and operated on a specific old craton has been a key point involving the early Earth's evolution. In order to address this issue on the evolution of the Neoarchean North China Craton (NCC), we investigated a representative successive magmatic rock suite of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) and sanukitoid in the Datong-Huai'an Complex. Geochemically, TTG gneisses in the Datong-Huai'an Complex can be divided into high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure (LP) TTG rocks. The HP TTGs emplaced at ∼2538–2497 Ma and 2441 Ma, respectively. Geochemical data shows that they are characterized by steep rare earth element (REE) patterns, obvious negative Nb, Ta, Ti anomalies and positive δEu anomalies, high Sr/Y, Nb/Ta and (La/Yb) N ratios, and positive ɛ Hf (t) (+2.1 to +9.1) and δ 18 O values (avg. 5.5‰ to 6.0‰). Their protolith is interpreted as the consequence of partial melting of a subducted oceanic slab with garnet and minor rutile as residual phases. In contrast, the LP TTGs emplaced at ∼2518 Ma. They display flat REE patterns, slightly negative Nb, Ta, Ti anomalies and negative δEu anomalies, low Sr/Y, Nb/Ta and (La/Yb) N ratios, positive ɛ Hf (t) (+3.4 to +5.9) and high δ 18 O values (avg. 5.9‰ to 6.1‰). They were most likely generated by partial melting of the mafic lower crust with residual plagioclase and amphibolite in the source region. The sanukitoid rocks emplaced at 2517–2485 Ma and show high MgO, Cr and Ni concentrations but relatively low (La/Yb) N values, positive ɛ Hf ( t ) values (+1.5 to +5.4), and higher δ 18 O values (avg. 6.8‰ to 7.5‰), suggesting that they were originated from partial melting of the mantle peridotite that was previously modified by slab-derived or sediment-derived melts. Combined with previous petrological, geochronological and geochemical data, we propose that the Datong-Huai'an Complex recorded the prolonged magmatism through ca. 2.56 Ga to 2.44 Ga, which was characterized by the high-angle subduction of oceanic lithosphere, leading to the opening of a mantle wedge, slab rollback and back-arc extension. All these lines of evidence manifested that a modern-style plate tectonics regime started along the western margin of the NCC Eastern Block during the late Neoarchean, though the interior Eastern Block was still dominated by the mantle plume-induced crustal growth and vertical tectonism. • Coeval TTGs and sanukitoids were recognized in the Datong-Huai’an Complex. • They recorded the prolonged high-angle subduction with rollback and back-arc extension. • Modern-style plate tectonics started along the margin of NCC Eastern Block in late Neoarchean.

Middle-crust accumulation of hornblendite and pyroxenes from slab- and mantle wedge-derived magmas and recharge of high-18O felsic magma collectively generated the Hadanxun arc magmas, northern East Junggar

Secondary-ion mass spectrometric U-Pb age and δ18O and laser-ablation multi-collector ICP-MS εHf (t) of zircons, mineral chemistry and whole-rock geochemistry and Nd-Sr isotopes of the Hadanxun intrusive complexes and Bieli'atun pluton, northern East Junggar were analyzed in this study. The Hadanxun intrusive complexes were intruded during Carboniferous (324.8–323.1 Ma) and Early Permian (290.0–281.3 Ma). The Carboniferous intrusive complex varies from diorite (with entrained block of hornblendite cumulate), monzodiorite through quartz monzonite/monzonite to monzogranite. The Early-Permian intrusive rocks include gabbro/dioritic rock, quartz monzonite/monzonite with anorthosite, entrained block of feldspathic pyroxenite and alkali-feldspar granite. The Carboniferous intrusive rocks exhibit decreasing MgO, TFe2O3, TiO2, CaO, Sr and V with increasing SiO2. Their rare earth element (REE) distribution patterns are concave-up and steeply-dipping with decreasing Dy/Yb and primitive-mantle normalized NbN/TaN. These characteristics can be modeled with two stage fractional crystallization early of hornblendite and late of feldspar-dominated minerals. These rocks all plot within adakite field in the Sr/Y vs. Y diagram, suggesting derivation from subducting oceanic-slab.The Early-Permian intrusive rocks with pronounced Nb, Ta and Ti negative anomalies and depleted isotopic compositions manifest arc affinity with derivation from slab fluid-metasomatized mantle wedge. The feldspathic pyroxenites exhibit negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.57–0.78), flat HREE distribution pattern with relative enrichment of HREE, significant negative Sr, P anomalies and REE = 157.8–186.7 ppm and Zr = 97.9–177. Just the opposite, the anorthosite and quartz monzonite/monzonite manifest remarkable positive Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 1.27–1.47), steep REE distribution pattern with depleted HREE, positive Sr, P anomalies and REE = 167–189.8 and Zr = 92.9–141. The complementarity of the two categories of rock with high REE and Zr suggests that they have equilibrated via a crustal melt-buffered liquid. In the quartz monzonite/monzonite, extensive K-, Na-metasomatism of plagioclase and metasomatism of hornblende into biotite suggest mixing of K-, Na- and Si-rich felsic magma into Al-, Ca-rich magma. Quantitative modeling can reproduce the complementarity of the two categories of rock with alkali-feldspar granite as Stage 2 residual melt. Underplating coupled with interaction of high-18O fluid caused hydrogen metasomatism and partial melting of juvenile lower-crust generating K-, Na- and Si-rich felsic magma. The latter was replenished to magma plumbing system and drove the preceding magma to ascend together. Meanwhile, the felsic magma mixed with pyroxene crystal mush in the upper stream and Al-, Ca-rich derivative magma in the down stream. This eventually formed lower cumulate beneath upper cumulate at emplacement, i.e. feldspathic pyroxenite (cumulus pyroxenes cemented by mesoperthite) beneath quartz monzonite/monzonite plus anorthosite of the Hadanxun main pluton. Al-in-hornblende barometry and two-pyroxene thermobarometry reveal that hornblendite (population 1 hornblendes: 26–22 km depth; population 2: 20–18 km) and pyroxenite (23–16 km) cumulates constitute high P-wave velocity body (27 to 15 km depth) in the middle crust of northern East Junggar, whereas fragment of hornblendite and symplectitic pyroxenes (18–8 km) record decompression when they were brought through magma plumbing system. The Hadanxun intrusive rocks including mixed product i.e. quartz monzonite/monzonite exhibit clustered εNd (t) (6.2–6.6) and (87Sr/86Sr)i (0.7037–0.7040) that are much more depleted than the Armantai ophiolite and Chinese-Altay continental-crustal materials. This precludes Early-Paleozoic oceanic crust and continental-crustal materials from Chinese Altay as source rock. The K-, Na- and Si-rich felsic melt was derived from newly-underplated material.Three post-Carboniferous intrusions (weighted mean zircon δ18O = 6.96‰–7.65‰) that are controlled by Kalaxiangeer fault system (F3, F4) record significant δ18O increase over Carboniferous intrusions (3.64‰–6.42‰) that are away from F3 and F4. However, both of them exhibit rather depleted Nd-Sr-Hf isotopic compositions. This does not reveal significant compositional change in the lower-crustal source rock during Early Permian that would have occurred if the northern East Junggar arc terrain had collided with the Chinese-Altay continental-margin. Rather, the latter two were joined by strike-slip such that high-18O fluid from the Chinese Altay could migrate to the northeastern East Junggar. Incorporation of the fluid or fluid-interacted crustal material increased δ18O of the post-Carboniferous intrusions.

Mixing of heterogeneous, high-MgO, plume-derived magmas at the base of the crust in the Central Iapetus Magmatic Province (Ma 610-550): Origin of parental magmas to a global LIP event

High-MgO (>12 wt%) magmas represent some of the most primary and high temperature melts from mantle plumes. The compositional diversity of high-MgO magmas gained by fractional melting within inhomogeneous mantle sources, is often overprinted by wall rock assimilation, magma mixing and fractional crystallisation within magma chambers at various depths within the crust. The deepest intrusions, at the base of the crust, are the first stop for magmas as they leave the mantle and such localities offer vital insights into the crustal processes that modify high-MgO melts. The Seiland Igneous Province (SIP) represents a rare exposure of a deep crustal magma conduit system that transported large volumes of mantle-derived melts through the lower continental crust. In this work, trace element compositions of clinopyroxenes in dunite, wehrlite and olivine clinopyroxenite samples from the Reinfjord intrusion were measured using laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The melts calculated to be in equilibrium with the clinopyroxenes represent derivatives of mantle-derived magmas and have steep rare earth element (REE) profiles with La/YbPM of 8.4–14., Sm/YbPM of 3.5–4.8, and negative anomalies in Nd, Zr and Hf. Assimilation, recharge and fractional crystallisation modelling shows that the ultramafic cumulates in the Reinfjord intrusion formed through concurrent fractional crystallisation and repetitive recharge (and mixing) of new primitive magmas from the mantle with very limited input from crustal sources. The recharge and mixing model is strongly supported by field and petrographic data. Two end-member ultramafic magmas are identified; the first end-member melt composition (MELTCPX0) is similar to the melt compositions that are in equilibrium with the most trace element depleted clinopyroxenes from Reinfjord. The second end-member melt composition (MELTPIC0) is similar to a number of picrite dykes found throughout the SIP, which have less steep LREE/HREE and lack strong negative anomalies in Zr and Hf. The REEBOX PRO melting model (Brown and Lesher, 2016) was used to forward model adiabatic decompression melting of lithologically homogeneous and heterogeneous sources containing anhydrous/hydrous peridotite ± pyroxenite. It was found that MELTPIC0 formed by melting of a peridotite source with up to 10% pyroxenite component and mantle potential temperatures of up to 1450 °C. MELTCPX0, however, formed by melting of a carbonate- metasomatised peridotite with potential temperatures of up to 1630 °C. These results indicate a compositionally and thermally inhomogeneous mantle plume beneath the SIP.

Latest Paleoproterozoic (ca. 1.8–1.6 Ga) extensional tectonic setting in the Dunhuang terrane, NW China: Evidence from geochronological and geochemical investigations on A-type granite and metamafic rock

Abstract Latest Paleoproterozoic (ca. 1.8–1.6 Ga) magmatic rocks outcrop in the Dunhuang terrane, represented by A-type granites and mafic (basaltic) rocks that have metamorphosed into amphibolites. The A-type granites, emplaced at ca. 1.79–1.77 Ga, are geochemically characterized by high Na2O + K2O, Fe2O3T, Zr, Nb, and Ce contents, as well as high Fe2O3T/(Fe2O3T + MgO) and Ga/Al ratios. Furthermore, they have Nb/Ta, Y/Nb, Rb/Nb, and Sc/Nb ratios of 12.10–15.56, 1.45–1.79, 3.52–6.51, and 0.11–0.19, respectively, showing affinity to A2-type granite. The A-type granites have negative εNd(t) values (−5.4 to −4.8) with Neoarchean depleted mantle (TDM2) ages (2591–2494 Ma), corresponding to coupling between εHf(t) values (−4.85 to -0.92) and TDM2 ages (2817–2556 Ma) of zircons. Therefore, the A-type granite pluton was mostly generated by partial melting of Neoarchean tonalitic to granodioritic basement rocks of the Dunhuang Complex in a postcollisional tectonic setting following a late Paleoproterozoic continent-continent collisional event. The metamafic rocks have a protolith age of 1605 ± 45 Ma and metamorphic age of 317 ± 20 Ma, indicating a Paleozoic tectonic event. The metamafic rock samples are geochemically characterized by relatively high alkali (Na2O + K2O = 4.39–4.81 wt%) contents and low Nb/Y (0.63–0.66) ratios, and they show steep rare earth element (REE) patterns with light REE enrichment and insignificant Eu anomalies and Nb-Ta, Zr-Hf, and Ti anomalies, resembling subalkaline oceanic-island basalt affinity. They have positive εNd(t) values (+0.8 to +1.8) close to the chondrite evolutionary line and variable εHf(t) values (-1.09 to +9.06) of zircons. Hence, the protolith of the metamafic rocks may have been produced by magma mixing processes between a depleted mantle source and a metasomatized lithospheric mantle source during the initial rifting stage in an extensional setting, completing the formation of the Precambrian Dunhuang Complex. Considering the ca. 1.85–1.80 Ga regional metamorphism in the Dunhuang terrane, the latest Paleoproterozoic (ca. 1.8–1.6 Ga) A2-type granitic magmatism and mafic magmatism documented the postorogenic to initial rifting processes following the global-scale late Paleoproterozoic collisional event, which is comparable with ca. 1.80–1.67 Ga postcollisional and ca. 1.60–1.53 Ga anorogenic magmatism in the North China craton, but different from that of the Tarim craton.

Geological significance of new zircon U-Pb geochronology and geochemistry: Niuxinshan intrusive complex, northern North China Craton.

The Huajian gold deposit is one of the largest hydrothermal intrusion-related gold deposits in eastern Hebei Province, located in the northern margin of the North China Craton (NCC). The mineralization in this district displays a close spatial association with the shoshonitic Niuxinshan intrusive complex (NIC), which contributes to the characterization of the metallogeny associated with convergent margin magmatism. In the current study, new geochronological and geochemical data are combined with previously published isotopic data, obtained from the granitic rocks in the NIC, to constrain the timing of the district’s tectonic setting transformation and determine its bearing on regional metallogeny. The new geochronological data constrain the timing of the tectonic transformation between 155 and 185 Ma. The NIC’s granitic rocks can be geochemically subdivided into two groups. One group’s geochemical signature exhibits steep rare earth element (REE) patterns with negligible Eu anomalies, lower Yb, higher Sr, and negative Nb–Ta–Ti (NTT) anomalies, which indicate a volcanic-arc environment with a thickened crust in a convergent setting. The other group exhibits flat REE patterns with obvious negative Eu anomalies, higher Yb, lower Sr, and weak NTT anomalies, which indicate an intra-plate extensional environment with a thinning crust. Combining geochronologic and isotopic data, the mineralization is Late Jurassic (~155 Ma). This is interpreted to be genetically related to the crystallization of the shallow crustal-sourced portions of this complex. Additionally, a tectonic model is presented that provides a plausible explanation for the abundant polymetallic mineralization that occurs in the northern margin of the NCC after 155 Ma.

Thermal history of the Donjek harzburgite massif in ophiolite from Yukon, Canada with implications for the cooling of oceanic mantle lithosphere

We examine the partial melting and the cooling history of a ~5 km section of mantle lithosphere preserved in the Donjek massif, part of a Permian ophiolite in the northern Cordillera of Yukon, Canada. The mantle rocks are depleted spinel harzburgite containing <3% clinopyroxene displaying steep rare-earth element (REE) chondrite-normalized profiles and low (Gd/Yb)n (0.02 to 0.07) compared to most other ophiolites. The REE patterns of clinopyroxene can be modeled as 16–20% partial melts of typical depleted mid-ocean ridge (MOR) mantle. The REE exchange between coexisting ortho- and clinopyroxene preserves temperatures (TREE) of 1150–1360 °C, some of the highest values recorded in ophiolites and abyssal peridotites, and show a positive correlation with CaMg exchange (solvus) temperatures (TBKN) of 900–970 °C. The harzburgite represents lithosphere formed at an initial melting temperature of ~ 1350 °C that cooled at rate of 10−1 to 10−4 °C/year as deduced by TREE values with cation diffusion and grain size data. The TREE temperatures and cooling rates for the Donjek massif show a regular systematic variation with depth from the crust-mantle transition along a trend similar to the Samail ophiolite of Oman, consistent with conductive heat transfer beneath a cool lower crust. High near-solidus temperatures and the cooling rates in the massif were a consequence of rapid obduction against oceanic crust along either a transform or low angle detachment soon after melt extraction. Final emplacement of the ophiolite as klippen on underlying continental crust occurred ~ 40 m.y. later.

Petrogenesis of the Jiaoziding granitoids and associated basaltic porphyries: Implications for extensive early Neoproterozoic arc magmatism in western Yangtze Block

Middle Neoproterozoic (ca 860–750Ma) granitoids are widely distributed in the western margin of the Yangtze Block, China, yet their magma sources and tectonic settings are unclear. The geochronology and geochemistry of the granitoids and associated basaltic porphyries, which intruded the ~970Ma Tongmuliang arc volcanic rocks in the Jiaoziding area (east of Pingwu county), were investigated in this study. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating indicates that the Jiaoziding granitoids and basaltic porphyries were formed at 795±6Ma and 790±20Ma, respectively. The granitoids have high SiO2 (69.2–76.9wt%), K2O (2.3–5.6wt%), and Na2O (3.2–5.1wt%) contents, and a low Al2O3 (12.4–14.5wt%) content. The basaltic porphyries contain high concentrations of TiO2 (~3wt%) and high field strength elements, have steep rare earth element patterns, and are depleted in Nd and Hf isotopes. Batch partial-melting modelling indicates that the Jiaoziding granitoids could have been derived by ~5% and 50-70% partial melting of Tongmuliang mafic rocks and quartz-keratophyres, respectively. Formation of the basaltic porphyries by melting of upwelling asthenospheric mantle would have been facilitated by extensive lithospheric delamination during the Neoproterozoic. This study established a link between mid-Neoproterozoic granitic magmatism and ~970Ma juvenile arc crust, indicating that extensive early Neoproterozoic juvenile arc crust, and partial melting of this crust in an extensional setting, favoured the formation of middle Neoproterozoic granitic rocks along the W–NW margin of the Yangtze Block.

Contrasting mantle-crust melting processes within orogenic belts: Implications from two episodes of mafic magmatism in the western segment of the Neoproterozoic Jiangnan Orogen in South China

Partial melting of crust and mantle is the dominant mechanism controlling Earth’s differentiation. The two melting processes are commonly associated because mantle-derived magmas could simultaneously provide heat and volatiles to promote partial melting of crust. To explore how the two melting regimes interact during the evolution of orogenic belts, we evaluated the petrogenesis and possible relationships with the Rodinia supercontinent of the two episodes of Neoproterozoic mafic magmatism in the western segment of the Jiangnan Orogen in South China. The first episode of mafic magmatism took place at ca. 830Ma in the Baotan area and was associated with widespread peraluminous granitoids. In contrast, the second formed at ca. 770Ma in the Longsheng area without significant granitic magmatism. The ca. 770Ma Longsheng mafic-ultramafic rocks show radiogenic and coupled Nd [εNd(t) values of −1.3 to +3.1)] and Hf isotopes [εHf(t) values of +2.6 to +6.7], whereas the ca. 830Ma Baotan mafic rocks show unradiogenic and decoupled Nd-Hf compositions [εNd(t)=−8.3 to −0.9, εHf(t)=−6.3 to −2.0]. Crustal contamination cannot result in the enriched isotopic features and the arc-like (such as strong deletions of Nb and Ta) geochemistry for the Baotan rocks because of the absence of correlations of Nd isotopes with incompatible elements and SiO2 contents, but crust-derived components may have been incorporated into the mantle source (<60km) by oceanic subduction. Geochemical modeling suggests that the Longsheng mafic-ultramafic rocks with steep rare earth element patterns formed from a deeper (deep to 120km) mantle source with little crustal contamination. We suggest that the Baotan mafic rocks formed in an active continental margin setting where a lot of volatiles can be released from the underplating mafic magmas to facilitate further crustal melting to generate the associated granitoid rocks. In contrast, the Longsheng rocks formed in a post-orogenic extensional setting where mafic magmas were apt to ascend so that extensive crustal melting was prohibited. The transition between the two episodes of mantle-derived magmas shed light on the secular evolution of lithospheric mantle in the western segment of the Jiangnan Orogen. The diverse mantle-crust melting processes in orogenic belts can serve as an indicator of tectonic transition of Precambrian orogenic belts in the history of the earth.

The Late Mesozoic tectonic evolution and magmatic history of west Zhejiang, SE China: implications for regional metallogeny

The granitoids and related polymetallic mineralization in the Zhejiang Province at the southeast margin of the Yangtze Block in China provide an important window to evaluate metallogeny associated with convergent margin magmatism. Here, we present geochronological, geochemical, and isotopic data from the granitic rocks of west Zhejiang, to constrain the timing of transformation of the tectonic setting of this region from volcanic arc to intra-plate during Late Mesozoic and its bearing on regional metallogeny. The granitic rocks in west Zhejiang can be geochemically subdivided into two groups. The first group is characterized by relatively steep rare earth element (REE) patterns with slight Eu anomalies, high Sr, low Yb, and negative Nb–Ta–Ti (NTT) anomalies, indicating a volcanic arc environment with a thickened crust in a convergent setting. The second group is featured by flat REE patterns with prominent negative Eu anomalies, low Sr, high Yb, and weak NTT anomalies, suggesting an intra-plate extensional environment with a thin crust. The geochronology of granitic rocks in west Zhejiang, combined with ages of regional tectonic basins and nappe structures, constrains the timing of the tectonic transformation to be in the range from 150 to 140 Ma. Sr–Nd isotopic data and a positive correlation displayed by oxygen fugacity (fO2), and La/Sm and Ba/Th ratios (proxies of subducted sediments and slab dehydration fluids) suggest that the high oxygen fugacity is probably related to the melting of subducted sediments and slab dehydration. From 180 to 80 Ma, due to the increasing dip angle of the subducted Izanagi Plate, the volcanic arc belt migrated oceanward, leaving most of the interior of Zhejiang Province under an intra-plate environment where insufficient subducted components and upwelling mantle generated reduced magmas which were not favorable for Cu–Mo mineralization. Our model provides a plausible explanation for the absence of Cu–Mo porphyry deposits in the adjacent region of Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Anhui provinces (Zhe-Gan-Wan region) after 140 Ma.

Magmatic growth and batholithic root development in the northern Sierra Nevada, California

In contrast to the much-studied central and southern Sierra Nevada, relatively little is known about the growth and petrogenesis of the batholith in its northern reaches, making it difficult to evaluate range-wide, spatiotemporal trends in batholithic development and the regional extent of eclogite root production and/or loss. New U-Pb ages from northern Sierra plutons reveal a shift between the age of Cretaceous magmatism recorded in the northern Sierra and the timing of an apparent flare-up in the main batholith, indicating that: (1) the northern batholith was more spatially dispersed and emplaced into regions beyond the modern topographic range, and (2) the Cretaceous high-flux event may have occurred over a longer period of time than previously suggested. Relative to the southern Sierra, Nd and Sr isotopic signatures in northern plutons are more primitive, mimicking the predominantly juvenile nature of the terranes into which the plutons are built. Despite differences in isotopic character, however, major and trace element trends are remarkably similar between northern plutons and the rest of the batholith, suggesting that emplacement into juvenile and/or oceanic lithosphere does not inhibit the generation of evolved, arc-type magmatic products. Northern plutons have relatively high La/Yb and Sr/Y and steep rare-earth element patterns, with small to no Eu anomalies. Taken together, these trends are interpreted to indicate deep processing of magmas in equilibrium with a feldspar-poor, amphibolite-rich residue, containing modest amounts of garnet. It is therefore likely that the northern Sierra Nevada batholith was emplaced into relatively thick crust and developed a dense mafic to ultramafic root. Because it is not seismically imaged today, we posit that the root was subsequently lost, perhaps in response to encroachment of proto-Cascade arc volcanism.

Insights into the Galápagos plume from uranium-series isotopes of recently erupted basalts

Uranium-series isotopes (238U-230Th-226Ra-210Pb), major element, trace element, and Sr-Nd isotopic data are presented for recent (<60 years old) Galapagos archipelago basalts. Volcanic rocks from all centers studied (Fernandina, Cerro Azul, Sierra Negra, and Wolf Volcano) display 230Th excesses (4%–15%) and steep rare earth element (REE) patterns indicative of residual garnet during partial melting of their mantle source. Rare earth element modeling suggests that only a few percent of garnet is involved. Correlations between (238U/232Th), radiogenic isotopes and Nb/Zr ratio suggest that the U/Th ratio of these Galapagos volcanic rocks is primarily controlled by geochemical source variations and not fractionation during partial melting. The lowest (230Th/238U) ratio is not observed at Fernandina (the supposed center of the plume) but at the more geochemically “depleted” Wolf Volcano, further to the north. Small radium excesses are observed for all samples with (226Ra/230Th) ranging from 1.107 to 1.614. The 226Ra-230Th disequilibria do not correlate with other uranium-series parent-daughter nuclide pairs or geochemical data, suggesting modification at shallow levels on timescales relevant to the half-life of 226Ra (1600 years). The combination of 226Ra and 210Pb excesses is inconsistent with interaction of magma with cumulate material unless decoupling of 210Pb (or an intermediate daughter, such as 222Rn) occurs prior to modification of Ra-Th disequilibria. An intriguing correlation of (210Pb/226Ra)0 with Nb/Zr and radiogenic isotopes requires further investigation but suggests possible control via magmatic degassing and accumulation that may somehow be related to source heterogeneities.

Slab partial melts from the metasomatizing agent to adakite, Tafresh Eocene volcanic rocks, Iran

AbstractGeochemical and mineralogical characteristics of the Eocene volcanic succession in Tafresh area of the Urumieh–Dokhtar Magmatic Assemblage (UDMA) are unique in the 2000‐km‐length assemblage. Demonstrating rather steep rare earth element (REE) patterns and the widespread presence of amphibole (+biotite) phenocrysts are two distinct characters that dominate the Eocene volcanic succession of mainly andesitic composition. Coincidence of the geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of the whole volcanic succession with adakites, rather amphibole‐ (+biotite) rich dacitic (with 61–64 wt% SiO2) stocks and dykes, is considered as the key in unraveling the role of ‘slab‐derived melt contribution’ in petrogenesis of the volcanic succession. Slab‐derived melting has been an ongoing process that metasomatized some parts of the mantle wedge from which hybrid rocks (andesites) are derived. Basalts with distinct signatures of slab melt metasomatism are yet another support for the occurrence of slab melting. Interlayering of normal, island‐arc‐type calc‐alkaline volcanic rocks with the slab‐melt metasomatized basalts and hybrid andesites suggests that the slab melting has been motivated by the subduction. Formation of the Tafresh Caldera, the likely consequence of an explosive eruption, is compatible with the volatile‐bearing nature of the adakitic volcanism in the study area. It is indicated by the ubiquitous presence of the hydrous minerals. Beneath the Tafresh area, in Eocene time, the subducting slab seems to have reached a critical high depth that is enough for the development of amphibolite–eclogite. The slab deformation, motivated by the geometry of subduction and/or the underlying mantle's steeper geotherms, is suggested to have resulted in the slab melting that helped develop a rock assemblage unique to the UDMA.

The Somuncura Large Igneous Province in Patagonia: Interaction of a Transient Mantle Thermal Anomaly with a Subducting Slab

The Oligo-Miocene Somuncura province is the largest (∼55 000 km2) back-arc mafic volcanic field in Patagonia, and one of Earth's largest with no clear link to a hotspot or major extension. Major and trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic data suggest involvement of a plume-like component in the mantle magma source mixed with hydrous, but not high field strength element (HFSE)-depleted components, from a disintegrating subducting plate. Magmatism is attributed to mantle upwelling related to disturbances during plate reorganization, possibly at a time when the South America plate was nearly stationary over the underlying mantle. Melting was enhanced by hydration of the mantle during Paleogene subduction. Crustal contamination was minimal in a refractory crust that had been extensively melted in the Jurassic. Eruption began with low-volume intraplate alkaline mafic flows with depleted Nd–Sr isotopic signatures. These were followed by voluminous ∼29–25 Ma tholeiitic mafic flows with flat light and steep heavy rare earth element (REE) patterns, intraplate-like La/Ta ratios, arc-like Ba/La ratios and enriched Sr–Nd isotopic signatures. Their source can be explained by mixing EM1–Tristan da Cunha-like and depleted mantle components with subduction-related components. Post-plateau ∼24–17 Ma alkaline flows with steep REE patterns, high incompatible element abundances, and depleted Sr–Nd isotopic signatures mark the ebbing of the mantle upwelling.

Steep REE patterns and enriched Pb isotopes in southern Central American arc magmas: Evidence for forearc subduction erosion?

The appearance of adakitic magmas with steep rare earth element (REE) patterns in southern Costa Rica and Panama at ∼4 Ma coincides with the collision of the Cocos Ridge and the inception of slab shallowing along the margin. Distinctly higher 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios in these adakitic lavas than in older Miocene lavas suggest that components enriched in radiogenic Pb also entered the mantle magma source at ∼4 Ma. Published Pb‐isotopic data for Central American arc lavas show that a similar radiogenic component is not present in lavas farther north and that maxima in post‐Miocene 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios occur in central Costa Rica and western Panama. Cretaceous and early Tertiary ophiolites in the forearc, whose origins have been linked to the Galápagos hot spot, show a similar spatial pattern in Pb isotopic ratios. The incorporation of ophiolitic forearc crust into the mantle wedge by forearc subduction erosion can explain the along‐arc spatial and temporal pattern of Pb‐isotopic ratios in southern Central American arc lavas. Partial melting of crust removed from the base of the forearc and subjected to high‐pressure metamorphism in the subduction channel provides an explanation for the steep adakitic REE patterns in some Costa Rican and Panamanian arc lavas.

Extension-related origin of magmas from a garnet-bearing source in the Los Tuxtlas volcanic field, Mexico

The Los Tuxtlas volcanic field (LTVF) of late Miocene to Recent age is a key area to understand the consequences of the current subduction of the Cocos plate beneath the North American plate, as well as the competing effects of the ongoing extension along the Gulf of Mexico coast. Geochemical and radiogenic (Sr, Nd, and Pb) isotope data are used to constrain the origin of these 7 Ma to Recent magmas in this area. The basanitic and alkaline basaltic rocks show highly steep light rare-earth element-enriched patterns implying residual garnet in their mantle source, whereas the evolved alkaline and sub-alkaline rocks have less steep rare-earth element patterns consistent with a contribution from the continental crust. Geochemical and isotope data from the LTVF are compared with those from continental rifts, extension-related areas, continental break-up regions, and island and continental arcs, including the Central American volcanic arc related to the subduction of the same oceanic plate (Cocos plate), as well as with those from the two nearby Mexican provinces [the Eastern Alkaline Province (EAP) and the eastern part of the Mexican Volcanic Belt (E-MVB)]. These data for the LTVF primitive rocks are similar to rifts, extension-related areas and continental break-up regions, including the two Mexican provinces, but different from island and continental arcs, including the northern part of the Central American Volcanic Arc (CAVA). The LTVF rocks show an unusual Th and U enrichment with respect to Ba and Rb, which also renders a distinct negative Nb anomaly (with respect to Th and K) in them. These rocks also show a negative Nb anomaly (with respect to Ba and La) that is similar to numerous rift, extension-related areas, and continental break-up regions, but distinct from all arcs around the world, indicating that the magma genesis processes in the LTVF are similar to those in rifts. The “Sr-shift”, shown to be a typical feature of most, if not all, island and continental arcs including the CAVA, is not present in the LTVF rocks. Numerous discrimination diagrams, including the new discriminant function diagrams, suggest a rift setting for the LTVF. An essentially extension-related origin of the LTVF is, therefore, inferred in this study. Furthermore, in the light of major and trace element data for LTVF primitive rocks and their modelling an incompatible element-enriched garnet-bearing source seems plausible. The LTVF source is likely to reside in the lithosphere rather than the asthenosphere although the asthenospheric contribution cannot be completely ruled out. The evolved alkaline and sub-alkaline rocks might have a lower crustal component. Finally, it appears that the LTVF shows more affinity to the EAP rather than to the Mexican Volcanic Belt (MVB), implying that the LTVF should probably be considered as a part of the EAP.

Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary, magmatic, and tectonic evolution of north-central Sonora (Arizpe and Bacanuchi Quadrangles), northwest Mexico

The Arizpe and Bacanuchi Quadrangles provide a geologic history representative of the north-central part of Sonora, where lithologies are dominated by late Mesozoic and Cenozoic igneous rocks. In this study, new geologic mapping, 40Ar/39Ar dating, and geochemical analyses have been combined to provide a stratigraphic framework for this area. Ten lithostratigraphic units and several igneous and tectonic events can be recognized. The oldest outcropping rocks are Lower Cretaceous strata of the Bisbee Group, which along with the Picacho conglomerate record a middle Cretaceous compressive tectonic event and associated sedimentation. Laramide igneous activity is widespread and represented by (1) highly altered andesitic flows and volcaniclastic rocks (Arroyo Alcaparros andesitic rocks) of late Campanian to Maastrichtian age, (2) less altered andesitic and dacitic flows (Cerro Las Jarillas volcanic rocks) of late Paleocene age, and the intrusive bodies of (3) Sierra El Manzanal granodiorite and (4) Rancho Vaqueria quartz monzonite. The Sierra El Manzanal granodiorite was emplaced at ca. 68 Ma on the basis of a 40Ar/39Ar biotite age (67.97 ± 0.19 Ma) and cooled relatively rapidly according to less precise 40Ar/39Ar hornblende and K-feldspar ages from the same sample (64.8 ± 1.0 Ma and 62.8 ± 0.3 Ma, respectively). The Cerro Las Jarillas volcanic rocks are slightly younger (40Ar/39Ar biotite age of 58.67 ± 0.17 Ma). The Rancho Vaqueria quartz monzonite was emplaced at ca. 57 Ma (40Ar/39Ar biotite age of 56.73 ± 0.14 Ma and a less precise 40Ar/39Ar hornblende age of 55.0 ± 0.7 Ma); a protracted cooling history of this pluton is indicated by the age spectrum of K-feldspar from the same sample. A probable magmatic lull and denudation seem to have occurred between middle and late Eocene time and probably until the early Oligocene. Subsequently, rhyolitic to mafic volcanism began close to late Oligocene time and lasted until the early Miocene. Felsic volcanism is represented by the Cerro Cebadehuachi volcanic rocks, from which 40Ar/39Ar hornblende ages of 27.25 ± 0.09 and 27.32 ± 0.06 Ma and a biotite age of 26.97 ± 0.06 Ma were obtained at three different localities. The Mesa Pedregosa volcanic rocks represent the transition to younger, mafic volcanic activity that occurred during the late Oligocene, as indicated by a sanidine 40Ar/39Ar age of 25.48 ± 0.05 Ma. This late Oligocene and early Miocene magmatism was paired by two episodes of extensional deformation. The first phase is characterized by northwest-striking normal faults and folds, which expose the deepest structural levels of the area, and by the related basin fill, the Bacanuchi conglomerate. The second phase is represented by north-striking normal faults and by the syntectonic basin fill, the Arizpe conglomerate. Basaltic andesite volcanic flows at the base of the Arizpe conglomerate yielded 40Ar/39Ar (whole-rock) ages of 23.52 ± 0.17 and 21 ± 0.20 Ma. The extensional deformation (27 to 23 Ma) in the study area is coeval with the development of metamorphic core complexes in neighboring areas of Sonora and with the onset of extension in southern Sonora. The mafic volcanic rocks and clastic sedimentary units associated with this extension resemble the basin fills that in other parts of Sonora are assigned to the Baucarit Formation. Geochemical information from samples representing each of the igneous events displayed high-K calc-alkalic and mostly metaluminous compositions. The older units including the Arroyo Alcaparros andesitic rocks, the Cerro Las Jarillas volcanic rocks, the Sierra El Manzanal granodiorite, and the Rancho Vaqueria quartz monzonite are characterized by steep chondrite-normalized REE (rare earth element) slopes and generally well-developed negative Eu anomalies, suggesting garnet and plagioclase removal in the source. The younger igneous events including the Cerro Cebadehuachi and Mesa Pedregosa volcanic rocks, and the basaltic flows associated with the Arizpe conglomerate, showed basin-shaped REE slopes with no Eu anomalies, suggesting clinopyroxene or amphibole fractionation.

Petrology of lavas from Sierra Negra volcano, Isabela Island, Galápagos archipelago

Sierra Negra volcano is a voluminous, active basaltic shield situated in the western Galápagos archipelago, a hotspot‐related chain adjacent to the Galápagos spreading center. The volcano has erupted Fe‐rich tholeiitic basalts of very limited compositional range. Comparison of lavas from each of five stratigraphic units covering the entire volcano indicates that the lavas are mineralogically similar and compositionally restricted (4.4 to 6.9 wt % MgO). The lavas are Fe‐rich and hypersthene‐normative and plot in both the alkaline and tholeiite fields of the alkali‐silica diagram. Rare earth element (REE) patterns are steep and parallel. The major and trace element data indicate a comagmatic relationship by fractional crystallization of the observed phenocryst phases. Projections into pseudoternary phase diagrams suggest that the magmas cooled and crystallized at pressures between 1 and 3 kbar. Calculated melt densities range from 2.73 to 2.77 g/cm3, which are higher than those of typical mid‐ocean ridge basalt (MORB), Hawaiian tholeiite, and other Galápagos lavas. The high calculated melt densities may be caused by fractionation at greater depths than is ordinary for the other basaltic magmas. Suppression of plagioclase and olivine crystallization in favor of augite may eliminate the minimum density “window” that has been proposed for MORB fractionation. Sierra Negra lavas have the most radiogenic lead and strontium isotopic ratios in the western Galápagos, indicating that the magmas have a relatively large contribution of plume material and have been minimally contaminated by entrainment of MORB‐producing mantle. Magmatic 3He/4He isotopic ratios from Sierra Negra are approximately 15 times the atmospheric ratio; although these ratios clearly indicate plume helium, they are not the highest 3He/4He in the archipelago, suggesting that helium is decoupled from the heavier isotopes. High Sm/Yb ratios, light rare earth element (LREE) enrichment, and a steep REE slope are consistent with an origin by moderate extents (5–15 %) of partial melting of a garnet‐lherzolite source with REE characteristics that are between chondrite and depleted Earth mantle sources. Sierra Negra lavas are compositionally monotonous because homogeneous plume‐rich material has experienced long‐term exposure to a well‐regulated sublithospheric thermal environment with additional compositional restrictions imposed in the lithosphere by high magma flux.