Steel Sculpture Research Articles

Innovative comparative EIS study of weathering steel: 2-year and 44-year-old, natural and artificial patinas

An artificial patina on weathering steel produced with a 10% sulphuric acid solution and a natural patina formed over a period of 2 years in an urban environment were compared with a 44-year-old natural patina on an outdoor weathering steel sculpture. The samples and sculpture are exhibited and studied in two of the most polluted Croatian cities, Zagreb and Sisak. Various techniques used to examine the patina included scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and in-situ electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) using a paste electrolyte cell. A widely accepted criterion for the protective effect of the patina on weathering steel, the ratio of goethite to lepidocrocite (α/γ), was found to be 0.10 < 0.38 < 0.71 for 2-year-old natural, 2-year-old artificial and 44-year-old natural patina on the investigated sculpture. Equivalently, the corrosion rates determined by EIS were approximately 37, 22 and 12.5 μm year-1. The in-situ EIS technique allowed confirming the efficiency of artificial patination by H2SO4 in immediately attaining about twice as protective patina than that formed naturally after 2 years. It also confirmed about three times as efficient protection offered by a 44-year-old patina except on the moss-covered surface.

Field Trips and Their Effect on Student Learning: A Comparison of Knowledge Assessment for Physical versus Virtual Field Trips in a Construction Management Course

Teaching through field trips has been very effective in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) disciplines as it allows students to bridge the gap between theory and practice. However, it is not always feasible to take a large class on field trips due to time, safety, and cost limitations. To adequately prepare future professionals in the AEC industry, it is imperative that institutions adopt innovative methods of providing the field trip experience. One such approach is using virtual reality (VR) technology. Creating 3D VR construction environments and immersing students in that virtual world could provide an engaging and meaningful experience. Although researchers in AEC schools have developed and deployed many virtual field trips (VFTs) in education, little is known about their potential to provide the same knowledge base. For that reason, a VR app was created to teach students about the design and construction of steel structures, called the Steel Sculpture App (SSA). The SSA served as a VFT, and the location of the steel frame structure served as the actual field trip (AFT). The research was conducted in structure-related courses in the spring, summer, and fall of 2021 and the spring and fall of 2022 semesters. Each semester, students were split into groups, one being the control group and the other being the experimental group. The control groups learned through AFTs, whereas the experimental groups learned through VFTs. A knowledge test was administered at the end of each treatment to collect quantitative data on the students’ performance, understanding, and knowledge retention. The results indicated that the students learning from VFTs scored higher than those learning from AFTs. The paper discusses student assessment results and student feedback about replacing AFTs with VFTs in times of need.

A Study on the Applicability of Cathodic Protection for the Outdoor Sculptures Corrosion

In this study, we proposed the sacrificial anode cathodic protection method as a countermeasure to reduce the corrosion of the steel sculptures under outdoor conditions and proved the anticorrosive effect experimentally. To affix the Mg sacrificial anode and the steel plate specimen, an adhesive bonding strength test was conducted with three types of conductive adhesives. Hence, the suitability of the conductive epoxy adhesive was confirmed, and a C-clamp experiment was conducted to supplement the connection. In addition, by applying a sacrificial anode suitable for the soil where the artwork is installed, the field applicability was reviewed through an artificial determination of resistance to cyclic corrosion conditions test(salt fog/dry/humid) to prove the suitability of the cathodic protection method by sacrificial anode. Hence, corrosion monitoring is in progress by test-laying steel plate specimens in an outdoor sculpture park to identify natural deterioration. In the future, based on the results of the outdoor exposure test, we plan to determine the proper method of bonding the sacrificial anode and the steel sculpture, and the replacement period of the sacrificial anode.

Digital Approaches for Public Art Collection Between Conservation and Public Outreach

Digital tools for artworks can offer new opportunities and design new approaches for conservation and public outreach. This paper presents the experience carried out by the School of Conservation and Restoration of the University of Urbino to preserve a public collection of wooden artistic models assembled by Umberto Mastroianni and used as a project of original bronze and steel sculptures. The digital documentation supported the maintenance protocol and helped design the restoration work. Moreover, thanks to cutting-edge technologies, a virtual exhibition was created, testing an AR application that allows the public to better appreciate the results of the interventions. Digital storytelling about artistic meaning connected the models to original sculptures placed in various Italian landscapes, offering the public an artistic journey into Urbino’s architecture.

The aesthetic emotional expression of piano music art in the background of Internet of things.

Artwork, generally refers to the work of plastic art. Artwork is divided into many categories, pottery art, traditional Chinese painting, abstract painting, musical instrument, sculpture, cultural relic sculpture, sandstone, imitation sandstone, ornaments, iron art, copper art, stainless steel sculpture and so on. With the continuous influx of artistic works, there are more and more studies on their emotional expression. How to judge whether musical works can bring joy, anger, sadness and joy to people? Is it joy over anger or anger over joy? Now in the era of the Internet of Things, the Internet of Things uses various information sensors, radio frequency identification technology, GPS, infrared sensors, laser scanners and other equipment and technologies to collect any objects and processes that need to be monitored, connected, and interacted in real time. By collecting various information such as sound, light, heat, electricity, mechanics, chemistry, biology, location and so on, and using various possible networks to connect, it can achieve intelligent perception, identification and management of objects and processes. The Internet of Things is an information carrier based on the Internet, traditional telecommunication networks and so on., so that all normal physical objects that can be individually located which can be connected together. The application field of the Internet of Things involves all aspects. The application in the fields of industry, agriculture, environment, transportation, logistics, security and other infrastructure has effectively promoted the intelligent development of these aspects, which making the limited resources more rational use and distribution, thus improving the efficiency and benefit of the industry. The application in household, medical and health, education, finance and service industry, tourism and other fields closely related to life has been greatly improved in terms of service scope, service method and service quality, which has greatly improved people’s quality of life. Based on this, this paper mainly studies the aesthetic emotion expression analysis of piano music art in the context of the Internet of Things. It mainly talks about the classification of music characteristics, emotional theoretical models, and emotional induction methods. Finally, the experimental analysis of piano music and the use of brain wave technology are used to analyze the experimental data. The experimental results show that in the process of feature extraction and optimization, this paper optimizes the traditional feature extraction based on power spectral density through cognitive rules, and achieves the effect of feature dimension reduction on the basis of ensuring the recognition rate. This paper uses the topological properties of EEG to classify emotions. The results show that the emotion recognition rate under the four emotional states can reach 67.3%, which is much higher than the current highest level.

Artistic License: Celebrating the talents of students and educators

This monthly column features a self-portrait by student Mariah Custard and a steel sculpture by teacher Denise Bucklet.

Using Cloud-Based Augmented Reality to 3D-Enable the 2D Drawings of AISC Steel Sculpture: A Plan-Reading Educational Experiment

Two-dimensional (2D) drawing is one of the most common communication approaches in the civil and construction engineering domain. However, there are limits to the traditional classroom setting for training in 2D drawing and interpretation skills. New visualization techniques exist for integrating the third dimension (depth) to 2D drawings, providing more accurate and natural representations of objects. This helps students to better understand 2D drawings and develop required spatial skills. This study employed cloud-based augmented reality (AR) technology to 3D-enable 2D drawings through virtually superimposing interactive 3D building information models onto 2D paper-based drawings. This research aims to understand if AR-enabled 3D augmentation can be used to facilitate students’ understanding of complex 2D drawings. An experiment was conducted to evaluate how AR could facilitate understanding 2D drawings against the conventional paper-only approach. The results revealed that AR was positively rated by students and could improve the accuracy of a plan-reading task.

Pen, Paper, Steel

Graphs drawn on rastered paper and a monumental steel sculpture display how visual artists Paul Klee and Henrik Neugeboren conceived of Johann Sebastian Bach’s polyphonic style in 1920s Germany. Focusing on the representational decisions behind these artistic translations of music, this article explores the ways in which such artifacts manifest a specific analytical lens. It highlights congruencies with and deviations from the theoretical framework of “linear counterpoint,” as epitomized in Ernst Kurth’s influential treatise from 1917, and thereby positions the artworks within the controversial reception history of Bach’s music and attendant theoretical frameworks in the early twentieth century. More generally, the article proposes that graphical and sculptural renderings of music can offer the opportunity to investigate music theory’s intangible methods and conceptual metaphors through different sensory experiences.

Electrochemical evaluation of the patina of the weathering steel sculpture Once Módulo

Weathering steels (WS) have been widely used due to the protective rust formed on the surface of the bare metal exposed to the atmosphere. They have been studied attending to specifications and characteristics in engineering, but in cultural heritage the use of this material does not follow the same criteria and has different needs which must be addressed. Among them, the design and the location of the sculpture may have an impact on the rust formed and may not be as protective as it was supposed to be. &#x0D; This work presents the study of the weathering steel sculpture Once Módulo which shows areas with different exposure to rainwater and different surface heterogeneities. The results obtained by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) have shown that the protective ability of the rust depends on the previous differences and that design and location of the artwork play an important role for its conservation.

Agar versus Agarose Gelled Electrolyte for In Situ Corrosion Studies on Metallic Cultural Heritage

AbstractThe use of gelled electrolytes has revealed an interesting solution for in situ electrochemical measures on cultural heritage, where liquid electrolytes cannot be easily handled. After developing an agar gelled electrolyte cell, other gelling agents such as agarose are being considered to improve it. In this work, the performance of agarose gels in different concentrations has been studied and compared to agar and a liquid electrolyte. Measurements have been done on patinated quaternary bronze and weathering steel, as representative materials of outdoor monuments. Agarose gels have been validated for in situ corrosion studies on bronze and weathering steel sculptures.

Minimalism as Detoxification

Whether in La Monte Young’s 5-hour piano solos or Richard Serra’s 100-foot steel sculptures, minimalism has never been minimal. Nor would minimization explain what is distinctive about the sentences of Raymond Carver or Mary Robison when Ernest Hemingway simplified form 50 years earlier. This essay argues that late twentieth-century minimalism is best understood as a practice of detoxification. It emerged in the United States in the same decade that Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring visualized an omnipresent threat to American domesticity from environmental pollution, a threat minimalists conflated with racial and sexual anxiety and sought to expunge in their style.

Mechanical Property Improvement of the H13 Tool Steel Sculptures Built by Metal 3D Printing Process via Optimum Conditions

Mechanical Property Improvement of the H13 Tool Steel Sculptures Built by Metal 3D Printing Process via Optimum Conditions

The importance of documentation to the conservation of the 1955 welded steel sculpture Roundabout, by Leslie Thornton

Multi-disciplinary research and documentation are the primary source of information to determine how to conserve contemporary art. This will be illustrated by the conservation of the mild steel scu...

A Virtual Steel Sculpture for Structural Engineering Education: Development and Initial Findings

We describe the development and evaluation of a virtual steel sculpture for engineering education. A good connection design requires the engineer to have a solid understanding of the mechanics and steel behavior. To help students better understand various connection types, many schools have acquired steel sculptures. A steel sculpture is a physical system that shows 48 types of connection found in standard construction practices. Unfortunately, because of its size and location, students do not always have easy access to it. The virtual sculpture described in the article can provide an effective learning alternative. It allows the students to see the sculpture from multiple points of view anywhere, anytime and shows the close-up view of each connection with description of how it may be used, potential failure modes, sample calculations, and field examples. Findings from a formative study with engineering students support the pedagogical efficacy of the interactive sculpture.

Bioimpact on weathering steel surfaces: Oxalates formation and the elucidation of their origin

This study was carried out to elucidate the causes of irregularities and discolorations on the surface of parts of a weathering steel sculpture which had been in contact with wood pallets. Non-destructive analysis of the samples by Raman spectroscopy revealed the presence of iron oxalates and calcium oxalates. Thermodynamic modeling suggested that the detected oxalates were produced by the reaction of oxalic acid, a potential metabolite excreted by microorganisms, and elements present in the steel surface such as iron. Carotenoids including β-carotene and astaxanthin, biomarkers for a large number of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms, were also detected in samples.

The Influence and Application of Stainless Steel to Modern Sculpture

Understand the impact of new materials on the study of modern sculpture, stainless steel sculpture and its understanding, awareness and stainless steel sculpture to the current problems that exist through observation, induction and summary, stainless steel sculpture by recognizing the problems at the same time, given a reasonable solution. Such as the use of welding techniques, and how to be colored stainless steel polishing process.

Protective ability index measurement through Raman quantification imaging to diagnose the conservation state of weathering steel structures

Weathering steel was designed to resist against the atmospheric impact due to the development of a characteristic rust layer that protects the metal by reducing the corrosion rate. This rust layer is formed by different iron (oxy‐hydr)oxides that acts as a barrier and provides the protective ability. In order to check the conservation state trough the protective capability, it is necessary to calculate the so‐called protective ability index (PAI). It mainly takes into account the ratio (α/γ) between the mass of goethite (α‐FeOOH) and lepidocrocite (γ‐FeOOH), present in the rust layer of weathering steel. Raman spectroscopy, apart from a qualitative technique, is recently becoming a semi quantitative approach. Therefore, it is a valuable tool for the calculation of the mentioned index. This paper is a widening of a previous work in which it was uncovered a problem in different weathering steel sculptures which are exposed to a Cl− and SO2‐rich urban atmosphere because they present different esthetical problems on their surfaces, such as detachments of steel chips, discolorations and irregularities. In order to relate these problems on the surface and the rust layer composition, PAI calculations were performed from the phase identification obtained from Raman imaging and using spectra decomposition to quantify each compounds. Although goethite and lepidocrocite were the most commonly detected compounds, hematite, akaganeite and magnetite were also identified. Hematite is a sub product formed in rich SO2 atmospheres; therefore, a PAI with its content is proposed. Protective indexes obtained for the different artworks exposed in different places provide quantitative clues for the conservation diagnosis of weathering steel structures. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Spectroscopic speciation and thermodynamic modeling to explain the degradation of weathering steel surfaces in SO2 rich urban atmospheres

The characteristic protection ability of weathering steel can be affected by the environment in SO2 rich urban atmospheres. Although sulphur dioxide can partially be oxidised to sulphur trioxide, both acid gases can be dissolved either in the atmosphere or in the moisture film present on the steel surface, forming sulphurous and/or sulphuric acid, and accelerating the corrosion of the material. Thermodynamic simulations, based on experimental data obtained by Raman and SEM–EDS techniques on different weathering steel sculptures located outside in Bilbao (Basque Country), were done to probe the role of SO2 in the formation of several soluble sulphates, such as, rozenite (FeSO4·4H2O) and retgersite (NiSO4·6H2O). According to the results, it was confirmed that the presence of atmospheric particles of calcium carbonate does not have an outstanding negative role in the metal decaying process. However, the presence of high magnesium calcite (HMC) plays an important role in the formation of magnesioferrite, another decaying product present in the surface of the weathering steel. As all these sulphates are soluble, rain water can dissolve them leading into a continuous decaying and material loss process.

Physical Science in Barcelona

We provide a tour of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, following four routes through the city and one elsewhere in the city and beyond, focusing on sites of importance in physics. Route 1 covers the Old Town, its Gothic Quarter, Placa del Rei, Placa de Sant Jaume, and Jewish Quarter. Route 2 identifies sites on and close to La Rambla, the main promenade in the city. Route 3 goes from the medieval shipyards to the Board of Commerce to Citadel Park. Route 4 concentrates on the Extension (Eixample) and covers the restored University, the Industrial University, and the new campus of the University of Barcelona. Elsewhere in the city and beyond are the Fabra Observatory; the Placa de les Glories with its large steel sculpture depicting the meridian arc from Dunkirk to Barcelona; Montjuic, the site of the National Art Museum of Catalonia; and the National Museum of Science and Technology in Terrassa.

Finite-Element Analysis of Ultrahigh Leaf-Shaped Steel Sculpture

In this paper, a three-dimensional model of a steel sculpture was analyzed by using the finite element software ANSYS. The structural static response were achieved respectively under gravity load, ice load and wind load based on wind tunnel tests with the dynamic response under earthquake action. Besides, the structural parameters such as strength and stiffness under different conditions were also got. It is hoped that the analysis of ultrahigh steel sculpture will offer some technical support for practical engineering.