Status Of Mammals Research Articles

Bioaccumulated provitamin A in black soldier fly larvae is bioavailable and capable of improving vitamin A status of gerbils

The aim was to study whether provitamin A (proVA), which can bioaccumulate in black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), is bioavailable and can restore VA status in mammals. A model for studying the metabolism of this vitamin, the gerbil, was either fed a standard diet (C+ group), a diet without VA (C-), a diet in which VA was provided by β-carotene (β-C) from sweet potatoes (SP), or a diet in which VA was provided by β-C from BSFL that had been fed sweet potatoes (BSFL). The animals were killed at the end of the supplementation period and β-C, retinol and retinyl esters were measured in plasma and liver. As expected β-C was not detected in plasma and liver of the C+ and C- groups. β-C concentrations were lower (p < 0.05) in plasma and liver of the BSFL group as compared to the SP group. Liver retinol and retinyl ester concentrations were lower in the C- group than in all the other groups (p < 0.05). These concentrations were not significantly different in the C+ and SP groups while they were lower in the BSFL group (p < 0.05 for retinyl oleate and retinyl linoleate). In total, the liver stock of retinol equivalent was almost twice lower in the BSFL group than in the SP group. Thus, β-C present in the BSFL matrix is bioavailable and capable of improving VA status, but this matrix decreases its effectiveness by a factor of around two compared to the sweet potato matrix.

27 Bacterial Community Diversity in Fresh Extended Boar Semen

Abstract Status of bacterial diversity within the male seminal microbiome has previously been linked to fertility status in mammals. However, minimal research has focused on the reproductive microbiome in boar semen. The objective of this study was to analyze the diversity of bacterial communities within fresh extended boar semen samples 1) between studs, 2) over 5 consecutive days, and 3) between pooled and single-sire doses. Eight single-sire (n = 4 per stud) and eight pooled (n = 4 per stud) fresh extended semen doses (80 mL) were obtained from two boar studs (A vs. B). Pooled doses were the composite of boars in single-sire doses. Doses were subsampled (16 mL) for 5 days post-collection. Negative controls remained unopened until the last day. Each day, 5 mL of each subsample were flash frozen and stored at -80°C for bacterial analysis targeting the V4 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene for Illumina sequencing. Quality of all sequences was determined by FastQC before being processed for taxonomic analysis using the qiime2 pipeline. Alpha diversity (difference within sample metric) was analyzed using Kruskal-Wallis test, whereas PERMANOVA was performed for beta diversity analysis (differences between sample metric). According to alpha diversity metrics, Chao1 (P &amp;lt; 0.01) and Shannon’s index (P &amp;lt; 0.01) indicated contrasts in diversity among all days and the negative controls. This was further confirmed with a pairwise comparison between individual groups, in which day 1 exhibited lower alpha diversity when compared with days 2, 3, 4, and 5 using Chao1 (P &amp;lt; 0.01) and Shannon’s index (P &amp;lt; 0.01). Interestingly, reduced diversity was observed for day 1 compared with the negative controls with Chao1 (57.4 ± 6.6 vs. 132.4 ± 22.1, P &amp;lt; 0.01, Q &amp;lt; 0.01; respectively) and Shannon’s index (4.8 ± 0.2 vs. 6.1 ± 0.3, P &amp;lt; 0.01, Q &amp;lt; 0.01; respectively). No differences between boar stud or sire-type were detected for alpha diversity metrics. For beta diversity analyses, both PCoA plots and PERMANOVA for weighted unifrac metric demonstrated no significant clustering between sampling days. However, distinctions between all days and negative controls were identified using PERMANOVA for unweighted unifrac metric. Specifically, differences were discovered between day 1 and days 3, 4, and 5 (P &amp;lt; 0.01, Q &amp;lt; 0.01). PERMANOVA for both weighted (P &amp;lt; 0.01) and unweighted (P &amp;lt; 0.01) unifrac metrics revealed distinct clustering by boar stud. However, there were no differences in beta diversity between pooled and single-sire samples for both weighted and unweighted unifrac metrics. Based on these results, bacterial diversity within a semen sample may be altered over time and could occur between boar stud operations. Additional studies analyzing the reproductive microbiome of semen could help improve the characterization of fertility status in boars.

DELINEATION OF POTENTIAL BIODIVERSITY AREA IN OUTSIDE FORESTS OF AVAILABLE PROTECTED AREAS

Effectiveness of biodiversity conservation in protective areas of forest become fulfill when housed all biodiversity rich areas. A study conducted in Agasthyarmalai Biosphere Reserve (ABR), a tropical evergreen forest of southern part of the Western Ghats (Suliman khan, 2016). Here identified well biodiversity areas outside of existing protected areas. Initially four forest patches selected in Achancovil, Kulathupuzha, Palode, and Paruthipally ranges from the satellite images analysis. Based on population, abundance, endemic and Rare Endangered Threatened (RET) status of Mammals, Amphibians, Birds, Reptiles and Butterflies, prepared the thematic maps in ArcGIS 10.2 platform. Weighted overlay analysis has been performed to get and priorities potential biodiversity areas.

Current Status of Mammals in Bukhansan National Park

Current Status of Mammals in Bukhansan National Park

Diversity and habitat association of medium and large mammals in Gibe Sheleko National Park, Southern Ethiopia.

Complete documentation on the status of mammals is indispensable for appropriate conservation measures in protected areas. However, there is inadequate information on mammalian resources in the ecosystem of Gibe Sheleko National Park (GSNP). Thus, the study aimed to assess species diversity, abundance, and habitat association of medium‐ and large‐sized mammals in GSNP. We stratified the study area into five dominant habitat types, namely dense forest, wooded grassland, grassland, riverine forest, and farmland habitat types based on land cover and vegetation structures and further employed stratified random sampling technique across each habitat type. The sample transects covered 20% of the study area. Transect width ranged from 50 m to 400 m based on vegetation cover and visibility of mammals. The main data were collected via direct observation. Data were analyzed via chi‐square test and species diversity indexes. We recorded the total of 20 mammals species' those belong to 10 families of which 8 species were large‐sized and 12 species medium‐sized mammals. There were two IUCN vulnerable species, namely Hippopotamus amphibious and Panthera pardus, and two globally near‐threatened species, particularly Litocranius walleri and Caracal caracal in the study area. Dense forest held the highest species diversity of medium‐ and large‐sized mammals (H′ = 2.28) with the highest evenness index (J = 0.84). Riverine forest had the least diversity with uneven population distribution. Papio anubis was the most abundance species, whereas Caracal caracal was the least abundant in the study area. GSNP is home for threatened and spectacular mammals species'; hence, an appropriate conservation measure is mandatory to keep existing mammals species'.

Assessment of status and threats of wild mammals in some selected locations of Dinajpur district, Bangladesh

The status of mammals in Dinajpur district was studied from October 2016 to November 2017. For inventory and assessment of wild mammal’s belt-transect sampling, box trap survey, mist netting, night survey and questionnaire survey methods were used. A total of 22 species of mammals belonging to 11 families and 5 orders were recorded. Of the recorded species 8 were rodents, 1 hare, 1 shrew, 7 bats and 5 carnivores. Muridae appeared as the largest family containing 8 species. A total of 9 species (41%) were recorded as “very common”, 6 species (27%) “common”, 4 species (18%) “uncommon”, and 3 species (14%) “rare”. Among all the mammalian species, 41% (9 species) were nocturnal, 14% (3 species) crepuscular, 37% (8 species) metaturnal and 9% (2 species) diurnal. On the other hand, 55% (12 species) of mammals were terrestrial, 9% (2 species) arboreal, 32% (7 species) aerial and 4% (1 species) aquatic mammals. Of all the recorded species, 32% (7 species) were herbivores followed by 27% (6 species) carnivores, 5% (1 species) opportunists while frugivores and insectivores were 18% (4 species) each. About 19% (4 species) of the known species are nationally threatened comprising of Endangered (5%), Vulnerable (5%) and Near Threatened (9%) and Least Concern (81%). Based on the habitats, 14 species (64%) were recorded from forests, 7 (31%) from homestead vegetation’s and 1 (5%) species from wetlands. A good number of individuals (n=12) of the nationally threatened Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis) were found in the study area and two mammal species, Indian Hare (Lepus nigricollis) and Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha) have been locally facing the threat of extirpation. The mammalian diversity in the natural forests (64%) was higher than that of the other habitats. Different anthropogenic threats, especially hunting by ethnic Santal people (frequency of observation 24 times, impact point 4), exist in the study area. The major proposed actions for the study area are habitat restoration, increase public awareness and conflict management.&#x0D; Jahangirnagar University J. Biol. Sci. 9(1 &amp; 2): 21-34, 2020 (June &amp; December)

Roles of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) in Mammalian Reproduction.

Reproduction is an energy demanding function and only take place in case of sufficient available energy status in mammals. Metabolic diseases such as anorexia nervosa are clinically associated with reduced fertility. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), as a major regulator of cellular energy homeostasis, is activated in limited energy reserves to ensure the orderly progress of various physiological activities. In recent years, mounting evidence shows that AMPK is involved in the regulation of reproductive function through multiple mechanisms. AMPK is likely to be a metabolic sensor integrating central and peripheral signals. In this review, we aim to explore the preclinical studies published in the last decade that investigate the role of AMP-activated protein kinase in the reproductive field, and its role as a target for drug therapy of reproductive system-related diseases. We also emphasized the emerging roles of AMPK in transcriptional regulation of reproduction processes and metabolisms, which are tightly related to the energy state and fertility of an organism.

Status of Mammals in the Expansion Sites of the Mt. Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary, Mindanao, Philippines

Mt. Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the Mindanao faunal region, which is home to about 21 species of mammals. This study provides data on mammal assemblage and assessment on the added value of the ca. 2.99 km2 MHRWS expansion sites to the already protected zone. Faunistic inventory and assessment documented 19 species of mammals belonging to 16 genera, eight families and five orders. This adds nine species to the previously reported mammals of Mt. Hamiguitan range making it a home to 30 species. Relatively low diversity of mammals (H’=0.615) in the expansion sites is attributed to poor soil resulting to low forest productivity and habitat loss due to mining, logging and shifting cultivation. This unique assemblage of vulnerable and endemic species of bats and mammals in Mt. Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary expansion sites calls for more sampling effort and conservation strategies to maintain its bat and mammal assemblage.

A review on status of mammals in Meghalaya, India

In this paper we present an updated checklist of mammals found in Meghalaya. Using online databases and search engines for available literature, we provide the scientific names, accepted English names, conservation status as per IUCN Red List, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act schedules, appendices in CITES, local distribution status, endemism, last reported sighting, an account of previous studies carried out relative to mammals and a tentative bibliography of the mammalian species found in Meghalaya. A total of 162 species were found to be existing in the state with Chiropterans forming the largest group and 27 species found to be threatened, seven Near Threatened and seven Data Deficient.

Annotated checklist and conservation status of mammals of Fars Province, southern Iran

Our purpose in this study was to gather all previously published data and our own data of extensive field expeditions and camera trapping to present a general view of the Fars mammals. The mammals of Fars Province, southern Iran, comprise of 72 species in 53 genera, 28 families and seven orders. The most diverse order is Chiroptera with 23 species or 31.9% of the mammalian fauna, followed by Carnivora and Rodentia (each with 18 species, 25%). The most diverse family is Vespertilionidae with nine species or 12.5% of the mammalian fauna, followed by Rhinopomatidae and Muridae, each with eight species or 11.1% of the mammalian fauna, Felidae and Canidae (each with five species, 6.9%), respectively. Sixteen families have only one species each. The Fars Province is the type locality of Triaenops persicus Dobson, 1871, Eptesicus serotinus shiraziensis (Dobson, 1871), Microtus irani Thomas, 1921, and Apodemus witherbyi (Thomas, 1902). Five species are listed in the Appendix I, eight species in the Appendix II, and eight species in the Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). In addition, three species are considered as endangered and nine species as protected species based on the rules and regulations/laws of the Iranian Department of the Environment (DOE). The Asiatic Lion Panthera leo persica Meyer, 1826 is extirpated in Iran. Among the reported species, 60 species (83.3%) are considered as Least Concern (LC), two species as Not Evaluated (2.7%), one species as Data Deficient (1.4%), six species (8.3%) as Vulnerable (VU), and three species (4.2%) as Near Threatened (NT) in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The current checklist shows that the mammalian fauna of Fars Province is rich and taxonomically diverse, and the provided information will be necessary for the development of competent and pragmatic management plans and effective conservation policies.

Sex Differences in the Regulation of Offensive Aggression and Dominance by Arginine-Vasopressin.

Arginine-vasopressin (AVP) plays a critical role in the regulation of offensive aggression and social status in mammals. AVP is found in an extensive neural network in the brain. Here, we discuss the role of AVP in the regulation of aggression in the limbic system with an emphasis on the critical role of hypothalamic AVP in the control of aggression. In males, activation of AVP V1a receptors (V1aRs) in the hypothalamus stimulates offensive aggression, while in females activation of V1aRs inhibits aggression. Serotonin (5-HT) also acts within the hypothalamus to modulate the effects of AVP on aggression in a sex-dependent manner. Activation of 5-HT1a receptors (5-HT1aRs) inhibits aggression in males and stimulates aggression in females. There are also striking sex differences in the mechanisms underlying the acquisition of dominance. In males, the acquisition of dominance is associated with the activation of AVP-containing neurons in the hypothalamus. By contrast, in females, the acquisition of dominance is associated with the activation of 5-HT-containing neurons in the dorsal raphe. AVP and 5-HT also play critical roles in the regulation of a form of social communication that is important for the maintenance of dominance relationships. In both male and female hamsters, AVP acts via V1aRs in the hypothalamus, as well as in other limbic structures, to communicate social status through the stimulation of a form of scent marking called flank marking. 5-HT acts on 5-HT1aRs as well as other 5-HT receptors within the hypothalamus to inhibit flank marking induced by AVP in both males and females. Interestingly, while AVP and 5-HT influence the expression of aggression in opposite ways in males and females, there are no sex differences in the effects of AVP and 5-HT on the expression of social communication. Given the profound sex differences in the incidence of many psychiatric disorders and the increasing evidence for a relationship between aggressiveness/dominance and the susceptibility to these disorders, understanding the neural regulation of aggression and social status will have significant import for translational studies.

An Updated Account of Mammal Species and Population Status of Ungulates in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan

This study documents the present status of mammals in Keoladeo National Park (KNP) and assesses the population structure of ungulates. It provides a comprehensive account of the mammal diversity of the park and aims to compare the change in mammalian species account ever since the park became a protected area. We employed line transect surveys for density estimation of ungulates. We report local extinction of eight species since 1966, and extant diversity of 34 mammalian species in KNP. The estimated densities of chital, feral cattle, nilgai, wild boar and sambar were 52.37, 33.66, 13.68, 3.21 and 0.32 individuals/km 2 respectively. Although blackbuck has become locally extinct and sambar density has significantly reduced, chital and nilgai as habitat generalists have increased in density in the last 25 years, which has contributed to an overall increase in ungulate population density in KNP. The mammalian diversity has changed substantially with local extinction of some carnivores and constant change in the habitat condition.

The Influence of Polyploidy and Genome Composition on Genomic Imprinting in Mice

Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic mechanism that switches the expression of imprinted genes involved in normal embryonic growth and development in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. Changes in DNA methylation statuses from polyploidization are a well characterized epigenetic modification in plants. However, how changes in ploidy affect both imprinted gene expression and methylation status in mammals remains unclear. To address this, we used quantitative real time PCR to analyze expression levels of imprinted genes in mouse tetraploid fetuses. We used bisulfite sequencing to assess the methylation statuses of differentially methylated regions (DMRs) that regulate imprinted gene expression in triploid and tetraploid fetuses. The nine imprinted genes H19, Gtl2, Dlk1, Igf2r, Grb10, Zim1, Peg3, Ndn, and Ipw were all unregulated; in particular, the expression of Zim1 was more than 10-fold higher, and the expression of Ipw was repressed in tetraploid fetuses. The methylation statuses of four DMRs H19, intergenic (IG), Igf2r, and Snrpn in tetraploid and triploid fetuses were similar to those in diploid fetuses. We also performed allele-specific RT-PCR sequencing to determine the alleles expressing the three imprinted genes Igf2, Gtl2, and Dlk1 in tetraploid fetuses. These three imprinted genes showed monoallelic expression in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. Expression of non-imprinted genes regulating neural cell development significantly decreased in tetraploid fetuses, which might have been associated with unregulated imprinted gene expression. This study provides the first detailed analysis of genomic imprinting in tetraploid fetuses, suggesting that imprinted gene expression is disrupted, but DNA methylation statuses of DMRs are stable following changes in ploidy in mammals.

Brain size is correlated with endangerment status in mammals.

Increases in relative encephalization (RE), brain size after controlling for body size, comes at a great metabolic cost and is correlated with a host of cognitive traits, from the ability to count objects to higher rates of innovation. Despite many studies examining the implications and trade-offs accompanying increased RE, the relationship between mammalian extinction risk and RE is unknown. I examine whether mammals with larger levels of RE are more or less likely to be at risk of endangerment than less-encephalized species. I find that extant species with large levels of encephalization are at greater risk of endangerment, with this effect being strongest in species with small body sizes. These results suggest that RE could be a valuable asset in estimating extinction vulnerability. Additionally, these findings suggest that the cost-benefit trade-off of RE is different in large-bodied species when compared with small-bodied species.

Identification, molecular characterization and gene expression analysis of sox1a and sox1b genes in Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus

The transcription factor, Sox1 has been implicated in neural determination and differentiation as well as in the maintenance of neural progenitor cell status in mammals. However, the molecular cloning and expression of sox1 gene in marine fish have not been reported yet. In this study, we first cloned and characterized the full-length cDNAs and the partial 5′-flanking regions of Paralichthys olivaceus sox1a (Posox1a) and sox1b (Posox1b). Phylogenetic, gene structure, and chromosome synteny analyses revealed that Posox1a and Posox1b were co-orthologs and homologous to mammalian Sox1. The promoter regions of Posox1a and Posox1b were also analyzed and several potential transcription factor (TF) binding sites were identified which might modulate gene expression. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) results showed that Posox1a and Posox1b were consistently expressed during embryogenesis, with the highest level at the neurula stage. Tissue distribution analyses revealed that Posox1a and Posox1b were abundant in the adult brain. Moreover, Posox1a had a faster evolution rate and much higher expression levels than Posox1b. These results provide a foundation for further surveying the function of PoSox1 genes during Japanese flounder development and neurogenesis.

Current status of Mammals in District Buner Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Current study was conducted in District Buner Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the period of January to October 2014. During the current study the mammals identified were Grey Goral, Porcupine, Fox, Monkey, Wild boar, Jackal, Hare and Bat. Among these species the Grey Goral was found threatened. The main causes of the species declining in the study area were deforestation, overpopulation and over hunting. Protective measurements are required to save the mammalian fauna of district Buner.

Current Status of Mammals and Reptiles at Hub Dam Area, Sindh / Balochistan, Pakistan

During the present study in 2012, a total of twenty four mammalian species were recorded belonging to 5 orders and 10 families; out of these, 8 species are less common, 2 species are rare, while 14 species are common in Hub Dam area. Twenty five reptilian species belonging to 3 orders and 12 families were also recorded from the area. Three species of mammalian Urial (Ovis vignei), Chinkara/Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii) and Jungle Cat (Felis chaus), one reptilian species Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) were recorded as rare from the study area during 2012. During the present study, nine mammalian species Wild Goat/Sindh Ibex (Capra aegagrus), Urial (Ovis vignei), Chinkara/Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii), Indian Hedgehog (Paraechinus micropus), Cape Hare (Lepus capensis), Little Indian Field Mouse (Mus booduga), House Shrew (Sorex thibetanus), Balochistan Gerbil (Gerbillus nanus) and Indian Gerbil (Tatera indica) and two reptilian Warty Rock Gecko (Cyrtodactylus kachhensis kachhensis) and Banded Dwarf Gecko (Tropiocolotes helenae) were recorded from the area. As regards threats to mammals and reptiles, these are affected by disturbance. Efforts are being made to conserve the important mammals and reptiles particularly in the protected area especially at Hub Dam.

Obesity Influences the Regulation of the Intrinsic Excitability of AgRP/NPY Neurons by Leptin

The adipostat leptin binds the long-isoform of the leptin receptor (LepRb) signaling nutritional status in mammals. The hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARH) is a major brain region involved in the regulation of food intake; LepRb are highly expressed in the ARH in both orexigenic NPY/AgRP neurons and anorexigenic POMC neurons. Leptin exerts opposing effects on the activity of these two neuronal populations, inducing net activation of the ARH appetite-suppressing circuit. In diet-induced obesity (DIO), the leptin-sensitivity of these neurons is diminished, producing persistent activation of the orexigenic circuits in the ARH. However, the underlying changes in the ion channels that mediate excitability remain to be fully elucidated. In this study, we show that DIO generates a persistent activation of NPY neurons, even in well-fed animals. NPY neurons were found to have a delayed rectifier K+ current whose activation is significantly shifted to more hyperpolarized potentials by leptin. However, in acute brain slices from DIO mice, the leptin-sensitivity of this current is significantly reduced. The biophysical properties of this current combined with immunohistochemistry suggest that Kv2.1 underlies the leptin-sensitive IK. In HEK cells coexpressing Kv2.1 and LepRb, leptin induces a significant, large hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage-dependence of activation of the Kv2.1-mediated K+ current that is qualitatively similar to that observed in NPY neurons. This effect was specific to Kv2.1, as leptin had no effect on the function of the closely related channel Kv2.2. We propose that dynamic modulation of somatic Kv2.1 channels by peripheral signals of satiety and hunger regulates the intrinsic excitability of AgRP/NPY neurons to modulate both the spontaneous activity of these neurons and the integration of synaptic input onto the neurons that comprise the energy balance circuits in the ARH.

Sirtuins mediate mammalian metabolic responses to nutrient availability

Metabolic diseases are an increasing threat in developed countries. Dysregulation of metabolic pathways, caused by imbalances in energy homeostasis, leads to obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease with devastating results for both individuals and societies. Sirtuins, a conserved family of NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase enzymes found in many species, regulate various metabolic pathways and have emerged as important sensors of energy status in mammals. The nuclear sirtuins, SIRT1, SIRT6 and SIRT7, regulate the activity of key transcription factors and cofactors of numerous metabolic pathways in almost all tissues by linking nutrient signals with the cellular responses to energy demands. The mitochondrial sirtuins, SIRT3, SIRT4 and SIRT5, regulate the activity of important mitochondrial enzymes and drive metabolic cycles in response to fasting and calorie restriction. Accumulating evidence indicates that sirtuins can be beneficial in the prevention of metabolic and age-related diseases and suggests that they can be pharmacologically activated to ameliorate such diseases. This Review describes the latest advances in the understanding of the function of sirtuins as regulators of mammalian metabolism and focuses on the role of these enzymes as mediators of nutrient availability.

Inferring causal phenotype networks using structural equation models

Phenotypic traits may exert causal effects between them. For example, on the one hand, high yield in dairy cows may increase the liability to certain diseases and, on the other hand, the incidence of a disease may affect yield negatively. Likewise, the transcriptome may be a function of the reproductive status in mammals and the latter may depend on other physiological variables. Knowledge of phenotype networks describing such interrelationships can be used to predict the behavior of complex systems, e.g. biological pathways underlying complex traits such as diseases, growth and reproduction. Structural Equation Models (SEM) can be used to study recursive and simultaneous relationships among phenotypes in multivariate systems such as genetical genomics, system biology, and multiple trait models in quantitative genetics. Hence, SEM can produce an interpretation of relationships among traits which differs from that obtained with traditional multiple trait models, in which all relationships are represented by symmetric linear associations among random variables, such as covariances and correlations. In this review, we discuss the application of SEM and related techniques for the study of multiple phenotypes. Two basic scenarios are considered, one pertaining to genetical genomics studies, in which QTL or molecular marker information is used to facilitate causal inference, and another related to quantitative genetic analysis in livestock, in which only phenotypic and pedigree information is available. Advantages and limitations of SEM compared to traditional approaches commonly used for the analysis of multiple traits, as well as some indication of future research in this area are presented in a concluding section.