Statistics Of Different Types Research Articles

Classification of the elliptical sentences in the question-answer dialogue unity in modern English language communication

The article provides an arrangement of different points of view of Russian and foreign linguists on the versatile issue of ellipsis and elliptical sentences. It shows how these constructions are de-scribed within the formal-grammatical, textual, stylistic, logical, comparative and communicative approaches; and the correlation between ellipsis and syntactic anaphoric zero qualification is given. The second part of the article is devoted to the statistics of different types of elliptical sentences based on the established basic models of elliptical sentences in questionand-answer dialogue unities of the modern English language communication. The author identifies five structural models of elliptical sentences in the question-answer dialogical unity of the modern English language. They are: one-member elliptical interrogative and answer sentences with noun, pronoun, adjective and adverb as a key component; one-member elliptical sentences with functional parts of speech as a key component: an elliptical question presented by question words, conjunctions; and elliptical answers in the form of conjunctions, interjections, prepositions. Then come one-member elliptical answer yesand no-sentences; two-member elliptical general and special questions with direct word order; two-member elliptical answer sentences with the incomplete structure of the predicate and also two-member elliptical interrogative and answer sentences with represented members.

Spatial heterogeneity of air pollution statistics in Europe

Air pollution is one of the leading causes of death globally, and continues to have a detrimental effect on our health. In light of these impacts, an extensive range of statistical modelling approaches has been devised in order to better understand air pollution statistics. However, the time-varying statistics of different types of air pollutants are far from being fully understood. The observed probability density functions (PDFs) of concentrations depend very much on the spatial location and on the pollutant substance. In this paper, we analyse a large variety of data from 3544 different European monitoring sites and show that the PDFs of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO_2) and particulate matter (PM_{10} and PM_{2.5}) concentrations generically exhibit heavy tails and are asymptotically well approximated by q-exponential distributions with a given width parameter lambda. We observe that the power-law parameter q and the width parameter lambda vary widely for the different spatial locations. For each substance, we find different patterns of parameter clouds in the (q, lambda ) plane. These depend on the type of pollutants and on the environmental characteristics (urban/suburban/rural/traffic/industrial/background). This means the effective statistical physics description of air pollution exhibits a strong degree of spatial heterogeneity.

On the stability of planetary orbits in binary star systems I. The S-type orbits

Many exoplanets are discovered in binary star systems in internal or in circumbinary orbits. Whether the planet can be habitable or not depends on the possibility to maintain liquid water on its surface, and therefore on the luminosity of its host stars and on the dynamical properties of the planetary orbit. The trajectory of a planet in a double star system can be determined, approximating stars and planet with point masses, by solving numerically the equations of motion of the classical three-body system. In this study, we analyze a large data set of planetary orbits, made up with high precision long integration at varying: the mass of the planet, its distance from the primary star, the mass ratio for the two stars in the binary system, and the eccentricity of the star motion. To simulate the gravitational dynamics, we use a 15th order integration scheme (IAS15, available within the REBOUND framework), that provides an optimal solution for long-term integration. In our data analysis, we evaluate if an orbit is stable or not and also provide the statistics of different types of instability: collisions with the primary or secondary star and planets ejected away from the binary star system. Concerning the stability, we find a significant number of orbits that are only marginally stable, according to the classification introduced by Musielak et al. (Astron. Astrophys. 434:355, 2005). For planets of negligible mass, we estimate the critical semi-major axis a_{c} as a function of the mass ratio and the eccentricity of the binary, in agreement with the results of Holman and Wiegert (Astron. J. 117:621, 1999). However we find that for very massive planets (Super-Jupiters) the critical semi-major axis decrease in some cases by a few percent, compared to cases in which the mass of the planet is negligible.

The numerosity and mean size of multiple objects are perceived independently and in parallel

It is well documented that people are good at the rapid representation of multiple objects in the form of ensemble summary statistics of different types (numerosity, the average feature, the variance of features, etc.). However, there is not enough clarity regarding the links between statistical domains. The relations between different-type summaries (numerosity and the mean) are of particular interest, since they can shed light on (1) a very general functional organization of ensemble processing and (2) mechanisms of statistical computations (whether averaging takes into account numerical information, as in regular statistics). Here, we show no correlation between the precision of estimated numerosity and that of the estimated mean. We also found that people are very good at dividing attention between numerosity and the mean size of a single set (Experiment 1); however, they show some cost of dividing attention between two same-type (two numerosities or two mean sizes, Experiment 2) and two different-type (one numerosity and one mean size, Experiment 3) summaries when each summary is ascribed to a different set. These results support the idea of domain specificity of numerosity and mean size perception, which also implies that, unlike regular statistics, computing the mean does not require numerosity information. We also conclude that computational capacity of ensemble statistics is more limited by encoding several ensembles than computing several summaries.

The Economic Impact of Space Weather: Where Do We Stand?

Space weather describes the way in which the Sun, and conditions in space more generally, impact human activity and technology both in space and on the ground. It is now well understood that space weather represents a significant threat to infrastructure resilience, and is a source of risk that is wide-ranging in its impact and the pathways by which this impact may occur. Although space weather is growing rapidly as a field, work rigorously assessing the overall economic cost of space weather appears to be in its infancy. Here, we provide an initial literature review to gather and assess the quality of any published assessments of space weather impacts and socioeconomic studies. Generally speaking, there is a good volume of scientific peer-reviewed literature detailing the likelihood and statistics of different types of space weather phenomena. These phenomena all typically exhibit "power-law" behavior in their severity. The literature on documented impacts is not as extensive, with many case studies, but few statistical studies. The literature on the economic impacts of space weather is rather sparse and not as well developed when compared to the other sections, most probably due to the somewhat limited data that are available from end-users. The major risk is attached to power distribution systems and there is disagreement as to the severity of the technological footprint. This strongly controls the economic impact. Consequently, urgent work is required to better quantify the risk of future space weather events.

Evidenzbasierte Versorgungsempfehlungen zwischen Wissen und Annehmen

The assessment of the potential benefit of medical drugs (and other types of medical interventions) is based on the current best available evidence from experimental and observational trials. Benefit assessment implies one fundamental assumption: the results published in the international literature actually have practical relevance for the future treatment of individual patients. This assumption is, in turn, based on a number of pre-conditions, six of which will be identified and discussed: an established nosology, the priority given to treatment implications, valid and reliable comparative measurement of outcomes, aggregate statistics for different types of outcome variables, and irrelevance of the psychosocial context of health care. Once more it will be demonstrated that the fundamental basis of any medical benefit assessment is a weak one in various parts and needs continuous theoretical reflection.

Global Perspectives on Loss of Human Life Caused by Floods

Every year floods cause enormous damage all over the world. This study investigates loss of human life statistics for different types of floods and different regions on a global scale. The OFDA/CRED Database contains data on international disasters and is maintained by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters in Brussels (CRED) in cooperation with United States Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Information from this source on a large number of flood events, which occurred between January 1975 and June 2002, is evaluated with respect to flood location and flood type. Due to the limited availability of information on coastal flood events, the scope of this study is limited to three types of freshwater flooding: river floods, flash floods and drainage problems. First, the development of loss of life statistics over time is discussed. Second, the dataset is analysed by region, by flood type and by the combination of type and region. The study shows that flash floods result in the highest average mortality per event (the number of fatalities divided by the number of affected persons). A cross analysis by flood type and location shows that average mortality is relatively constant for the different types over various continents, while the magnitude of the impacts (numbers of killed) and affected for a certain type varies between the different continents. On a worldwide scale Asian river floods are most significant in terms of number of persons killed and affected. Finally, a comparison with figures for other types of natural disasters shows that floods are the most significant disaster type in terms of the number of persons affected.

Quantum statistics of superluminal radiation

A statistical quantization of superluminal (tachyon) radiation is introduced. The tiny tachyonic fine structure constant suggests to depart from the usual quantum field theoretic expansions, and to use more elementary methods such as detailed equilibrium balancing of emission and absorption rates. Instead of commencing with an operator interpretation of the wave function, we quantize the time-averaged energy functional and the energy-balance equation. This allows to use different statistics for different types of modes. Transversal superluminal modes are quantized in Bose statistics, longitudinal ones are turned into fermions, resulting in a positive definite Hamiltonian for the radiation field. We discuss the absorptive space structure underlying superluminal quanta and the energy dissipation related to it. This dissipation leads to an adiabatic time variation of the temperature in the bosonic and fermionic spectral functions, gray-body quasi-equilibrium distributions with a dispersion relation adapted to the negative mass-square of the tachyonic modes. The superluminal radiation field couples by minimal substitution to subluminal matter. Adiabatically damped Einstein coefficients are obtained by detailed balancing, as well as emission and absorption rates for tachyon radiation in hydrogenic systems, in particular the possibility of spontaneous emission of superluminal fermionic quanta is pointed out, and time scales for the approach to equilibrium are derived.