Static Media Research Articles

Acute Pesticide Toxicity on <i>Oreochromis Niloticus</i>, with Particular Reference to Insecticides

Pyriforce 600 EC and Cyperplant 100 EC are insecticides used in large quantities in agricultural practices in Cameroon. Residues due to intensive agriculture combined with surface runoff and surface drainage, a few weeks after application are deposited in water courses like ponds, rivers and lakes. This has negative effects on fish and other aquatic organisms which are of great concern to the wider public. To assess the risks of toxicity and their negative influence on aquatic biodiversity, acute toxicity bioassays on individuals of <i>Oreochromis niloticus</i> were carried out using Pyriforce 600 EC and Cyperplant 100 EC (toxicants) separately with nine concentrations in static media in aquariums for 24 hours. The test solution (P) representing the farmer’s dose was prepared using each toxicant. For Pyriforce 600 EC, P was of 3.125 ml/l while for Cyperplant 100 EC P was 1.33 ml/l. From this test solution (P), different concentrations were calculated and introduced into various aquaria to which <i>Oreochromis niloticus</i> fingerlings were exposed. The nominal test concentrations for Pyriforce were: 0.0 µl/l, 2.60 µl/l, 3.125 µl/l, 3.9 µl/l, 5, 2 µl/l, 7.8 µl/l, 15.6 µl/l, 31.25 µl/l, 39 µl/l and Cyperplant were: 0.0 µl/l, 1.10 µl/l, 1.33 µl/l, 1.66 µ/l, 2.22 µl/l, 3.33 µl/l, 6.66 µl/l, 13.33 µl/l, 16.60 µl/l respectively. The experimental setup constituted of ten specimens, (3,5 ± 0,5) cm standard length and mean weight (2,75 ± 0.5) g placed in each 75 × 45 cm glass aquarium located indoors, each containing 10 L of combined water from the pond from which test specimens were harvested and the test solution. Physicochemical parameters were measured throughout the test period following the recommendations of Rodier et al. Minimum (30±0.00%) and maximum (100 ± 0.00%) mortalities were recorded. Correlations were positive and strong between mortality rates and concentrations. Physicochemical parameters did not vary greatly during the test period. The 50% lethal concentration for 24 hours of exposure (LC50-24 h) was relatively high with Cyperplant 100 EC (P/800) and low with Pyriforce 600 EC (P/1200) which turns out to be the most toxic pesticide. The results showed that they may cause serious long term effects in our ecosystem such as the killing of <i>Oreochromis nioticus</i> fingerlings even at very low doses which may lead to gross drop in their population in the ecosystem and even the extinction of the species if the situation is not controlled.

Unraveling the genomic secrets of Tritonibacter mobilis AK171: a plant growth-promoting bacterium isolated from Avicennia marina

The scarcity of freshwater resources resulting in a significant yield loss presents a pressing challenge in agriculture. To address this issue, utilizing abundantly available saline water could offer a smart solution. In this study, we demonstrate that the genome sequence rhizosphere bacterium Tritonibacter mobilis AK171, a halophilic marine bacterium recognized for its ability to thrive in saline and waterlogged environments, isolated from mangroves, has the remarkable ability to enable plant growth using saline irrigation. AK171 is characterized as rod-shaped cells, displays agile movement in free-living conditions, and adopts a rosette arrangement in static media. Moreover, The qualitative evaluation of PGP traits showed that AK171 could produce siderophores and IAA but could not solubilize phosphate nor produce hydrolytic enzymes it exhibits a remarkable tolerance to high temperatures and salinity. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive genome sequence analysis of T. mobilis AK171 to unravel the genetic mechanisms underlying its plant growth-promoting abilities in such challenging conditions. Our analysis revealed diverse genes and pathways involved in the bacterium’s adaptation to salinity and waterlogging stress. Notably, T. mobilis AK171 exhibited a high level of tolerance to salinity and waterlogging through the activation of stress-responsive genes and the production of specific enzymes and metabolites. Additionally, we identified genes associated with biofilm formation, indicating its potential role in establishing symbiotic relationships with host plants. Furthermore, our analysis unveiled the presence of genes responsible for synthesizing antimicrobial compounds, including tropodithietic acid (TDA), which can effectively control phytopathogens. This genomic insight into T. mobilis AK171 provides valuable information for understanding the molecular basis of plant-microbial interactions in saline and waterlogged environments. It offers potential applications for sustainable agriculture in challenging conditions.

A typology of HIV self-testing support systems: a scoping review.

To maximise the benefits of HIV self-testing (HIVST), it is critical to support self-testers in the testing process and ensure that they access appropriate prevention and care. To summarise systems and tools supporting HIVST (hereafter, 'support systems') and categorise them for future analysis, we synthesised the global data on HIVST support systems and proposed a typology. We searched five databases for articles reporting on one or more HIVST support systems and included 314 publications from 224 studies. Across 189 studies, there were 539 reports of systems supporting HIVST use; while across 115 studies, there were 171 reports of systems supporting result interpretation. Most commonly, these were pictorial instructions, followed by in-person demonstrations and in-person assistance while self-testing or reading self-test results. Less commonly, virtual interventions were also identified, including online video conferencing and smartphone apps. Smartphone-based automated result readers have been used in the USA, China, and South Africa. Across 173 studies, there were 987 reports of systems supporting post-test linkage to care; most commonly, these were in-person referrals/counselling, written referrals, and phone helplines. In the USA, Bluetooth beacons have been trialled to monitor self-test use and facilitate follow-up. We found that, globally, HIVST support systems use a range of methods, including static media, virtual tools, and in-person engagement. In-person and printed approaches were more common than virtual tools. Other considerations, such as linguistic and cultural appropriateness, may also be important in the development of effective HIVST programs.

Time reflection of light from a quantum perspective and vacuum entanglement

If a boundary between two static media is moving with a constant superluminal velocity, or there is a sudden change of the refractive index with time, this yields generation of entangled pairs of photons out of vacuum propagating in the opposite directions. Here we show that during this process, entanglement of Minkowski vacuum is transferred to the entanglement of the generated photon pairs. If initially an electromagnetic pulse is present in the medium the photon generation is stimulated into the pulse mode, and since photons are created as entangled pairs the counter-propagating photon partners produce a pulse moving in the opposite direction, which is known as time reflection. Thus, time reflection occurs due to stimulated generation of the entangled photon pairs out of entangled vacuum and no photons in the original pulse are in fact being reflected. This is different from the mechanism of light reflection from spatial inhomogeneities for which no photons are generated.

Development of lumen-based perfusable 3D liver in vitro model using single-step bioprinting with composite bioinks.

Hepatic sinusoids are uniquely organized structures that help maintain a spectrum of hepatic functions. Although several in vitro liver models have been developed to replicate liver sinusoids, most of these platforms require complex, multi-step fabrication methods making it difficult to achieve truly three-dimensional (3D) channel geometries. In this study, a single-step bioprinting technique was demonstrated to simultaneously print a chip platform and develop a perfusable vascularized liver sinusoid in vitro model. The integrated system uses a co-axial-based bioprinting approach to develop a liver sinusoid-like model that consists of a sacrificial core compartment containing a perfusable pre-vascular structure and an alginate-collagen-based shell compartment containing hepatocytes. The lumen-based perfusable 3D liver sinusoid-on-a-chip (LSOC-P) demonstrated significantly better hepatocyte viability, proliferation, and liver-specific gene and protein expression compared to a 3D hepatocyte-based core/shell model with static media and the standard hepatocyte-based 2D sandwich culture system. A drug toxicity evaluation of hepatotoxins highlighted the comparatively higher sensitivity of the LSOC system with a close estimation of the therapeutic range of safe drug concentrations for humans. In conclusion, the current findings indicate that the combinatorial single-step co-axial bioprinting technique is a promising fabrication approach for the development of a perfusable LSOC platform for drug screening applications.

Influence of Geometric Structure, Convection, and Eddy on Sound Propagation in Acoustic Metamaterials with Turbulent Flow

The problem of reducing noise in the transportation is an important research field to prevent accidents and to provide a civilized environment for people. A material that has recently attracted attention in research to reduce noise is acoustic metamaterial, and most of the research projects so far have been limited to the case of static media without flow. We have studied the sound transmission properties of acoustic metamaterial with turbulent flow to develop acoustic metamaterial that be used in transportation. In this paper, the effect of geometrical structure, the convective effect, and the eddy effect on sound propagation in acoustic metamaterial with turbulent flow are investigated, and the relationships between them are analyzed. The convective effect and the eddy effect both reduce the resonant strength of sound transmission loss resulting from the unique geometry of the acoustic crystal, but shift the resonant frequencies in opposite directions. In addition, when the convective effect and the eddy effect of the airflow, as well as the intrinsic interaction effect generated from the unique geometrical structure of the acoustic metamaterial cannot be ignored, they exhibit competition phenomena with each other, resulting in a widening of the resonance peak. As a result, these three effects cause the shift of the resonance frequency of the sound transmission loss and the widening of the resonance peak. The results of this study show that even in the case of turbulent flow, acoustic metamaterial can be used for transportation by properly controlling the geometric size and shape of the acoustic metamaterial.

Current Research Trends in the Application of In Vitro Three-Dimensional Models of Liver Cells

The liver produces and stores various nutrients that are necessary for the body and serves as a chemical plant, metabolizing carbohydrates, fats, hormones, vitamins, and minerals. It is also a vital organ for detoxifying drugs and exogenous harmful substances. Culturing liver cells in vitro under three-dimensional (3D) conditions is considered a primary mechanism for liver tissue engineering. The 3D cell culture system is designed to allow cells to interact in an artificially created environment and has the advantage of mimicking the physiological characteristics of cells in vivo. This system facilitates contact between the cells and the extracellular matrix. Several technically different approaches have been proposed, including bioreactors, chips, and plate-based systems in fluid or static media composed of chemically diverse materials. Compared to conventional two-dimensional monolayer culture in vitro models, the ability to predict the function of the tissues, including the drug metabolism and chemical toxicity, has been enhanced by developing three-dimensional liver culture models. This review discussed the methodology of 3D cell cultures and summarized the advantages of an in vitro liver platform using 3D culture technology.

Simulation of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Plasma Under High-Power Microwave Illumination

This letter focuses on the propagation characteristics of the electromagnetic wave in the plasma under high-power microwave (HPM) illumination. A multiphysical method coupling the electromagnetic field and plasma fluid field is proposed as the dynamic Drude model. The differences between the method based on dynamic Drude model and traditional static Drude model are discussed theoretically for the first time. Unlike the static Drude model, the dynamic Drude model fully considers the motion of electrons in plasma driven by electromagnetic field. Numerical examples demonstrate that both the dynamic Drude model-based and static Drude model-based method are consistent with each other under low power microwave illumination, where the plasma can be considered as a static media. While under HPM illumination, electrons gradually gather together to hinder the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Hence, the proposed dynamic Drude model is more logical to analyze the characteristics of electromagnetic wave in plasma than the traditional static Drude model under HPM illumination.

Preferences for a Multimedia Web Platform to Increase Awareness of Cultural Heritage: A Stated Choice Experiment

As stated by UNESCO, cultural heritage (CH) (tangible and intangible) plays an important role in inheriting, maintaining and passing the values and knowledge from past generations to the next ones. To create an interest and raise the awareness of CH, variety of media sources (i.e., maps, text, 3D models, virtual reality) are exploited. These multimedia sources are brought together on web platforms that preserve and disseminate tangible and intangible CH information, with the aim to reach to large audiences. Although there are many examples of these multimedia web platforms, there is little research on understanding people’s willingness to use such multimedia web platforms and which media type people prefer for understanding and learning about CH. This is important to address since the success and sustainability of such platforms lies on their acceptance by the target audience in terms of data representation and the ease of information provision. To address this problem, this research applied a stated choice experiment to represent a hypothetical multimedia web platform to respondents. Different media types were tested for the description of CH (spatial content and historical content). The collected data from 630 respondents was analysed by a mixed logit model in order to determine the preference towards different media in a given hypothetical multimedia web platform to increase awareness of CH. The results indicate that people prefer multiple media rather than a single medium. Especially, adding dynamic media (i.e., 3D models and videos) to static media (i.e., 2D map and text) increase people’s willingness to use the multimedia web platform. The results help to formulate a new multimedia web platform and can help representatives of heritage sites to create a more sustainable way to broadcast information about CH to the public.

Playful Strategies in Print Advertising

The fact that people are increasingly eager to seek out playful experiences in their everyday lives is part of a trend known as the ludification of culture. Scholars find that, in a time characterized by information overload, consumers are open and drawn to media products that offer entertainment through playful interaction. Meanwhile, the advertising industry is faced with the quandary of how to stand out and attract consumers’ fleeting attention in a landscape that has become highly competitive. Print advertising in particular faces a budget decline and has to compete with digital advertising forms that know richer affordances to appeal to consumers’ attention. For this reason, this article explores how print advertising uses playful strategies in order to stand out from the crowd and appease the demand to provide entertaining interaction for consumers. In doing so, the article focuses on the following research question: How do advertisers make use of playful communication strategies in print advertisements to stand out in the contemporary attention economy? To gain a comprehensive answer to this research question, a qualitative approach was taken. A thematic analysis of print advertisements was conducted, going through multiple rounds of coding that eventually resulted in the emergence of three central themes of playful strategies: (1) the use of playful visual design that is meant to instill a playful mindset; (2) the use of strategies based on a pleasurable interactive experiential logic; (3) the liberation of unspoken topics of a dark, solemn, and negative nature in a playful way. This study identifies playful aesthetics and their capacity for interactivity, resembling that of games, in static media forms such as print advertising; moreover, it identifies how playfulness can be used as a mode of production (playification) for the advertising industry as part of the creative industries. The conclusions and implications drawn from this article are thus theoretically and practically impactful. Regarding the former, contributions to an understanding of aesthetic interactivity and negative pleasurable experiences are made, and a need for further inquiry in playification is identified and encouraged. Regarding the latter, the benefit for advertisers to use playful print advertising strategies in their marketing mix is illuminated and ethical concerns regarding the persuasion of the strategies are expressed. The article closes by pointing out directions for future research.

Towards smart optical focusing: deep learning-empowered dynamic wavefront shaping through nonstationary scattering media

Optical focusing through scattering media is of great significance yet challenging in lots of scenarios, including biomedical imaging, optical communication, cybersecurity, three-dimensional displays, etc. Wavefront shaping is a promising approach to solve this problem, but most implementations thus far have only dealt with static media, which, however, deviates from realistic applications. Herein, we put forward a deep learning-empowered adaptive framework, which is specifically implemented by a proposed Timely-Focusing-Optical-Transformation-Net (TFOTNet), and it effectively tackles the grand challenge of real-time light focusing and refocusing through time-variant media without complicated computation. The introduction of recursive fine-tuning allows timely focusing recovery, and the adaptive adjustment of hyperparameters of TFOTNet on the basis of medium changing speed efficiently handles the spatiotemporal non-stationarity of the medium. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the adaptive recursive algorithm with the proposed network significantly improves light focusing and tracking performance over traditional methods, permitting rapid recovery of an optical focus from degradation. It is believed that the proposed deep learning-empowered framework delivers a promising platform towards smart optical focusing implementations requiring dynamic wavefront control.

Prevalence of violent advertisements in New York City subways.

Background: Media advertisements displaying aggression and violence in public transit spaces represent a public health concern. The high visibility of ads likely contributes to increased levels of aggression among New York City (NYC) youths traveling across boroughs. Given the importance of the physical, psychological and social environment in shaping the lives of youth, additional attention is warranted regarding how media advertisements are promoted within public transit spaces across America. The aim of this study was to document quantity and placement of advertisements illustrating aggressive and violent content throughout the NYC public transit subway system. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted over a five-day period in June 2017. Direct observation was used to document all advertisements within every NYC Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) subway station (N = 472) in four NYC boroughs: Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan and Queens. Static media advertisements with/without aggressive and violent content displayed on subway platform wall panels above and underground were counted, photographed and described with a mobile app. Results: Aggressive and violent ads in the MTA were pervasive. Subway platforms displayed advertising consisting of guns, individuals fighting and attacking, and words with aggressive language. Conclusion: Public transit spaces provide unregulated visual and verbal messages without citizen participation. Subway stations in NYC and across the country prohibition stance could be a model for violent content reduction. Given the pervasive and tragic effects of aggression and violence on youth and adults, transit agencies could inundate passengers with positive advertising content. Dialogue between citizens and transit agencies to remove noxious messages from public transit spaces warrants the same discussion given to banning alcohol advertisements.

Using augmented reality for industrial quality assurance: a shop floor user study

Quality control procedures are essential in many industrial production pipelines. These repetitive and precise tasks are frequently complex, including several steps that must be performed correctly by different operators. To facilitate these, quality control tests are often documented with static media like video recordings, photos, or diagrams. However, the need for the operator to divide attention between the visual instructions and the task, and the lack of feedback lead to slow processes, with potential for improvement. By using augmented reality (AR), operators can focus on the task at hand while receiving visual feedback where it is needed. Nevertheless, existing prototypes are still at early stages, being tested only in laboratory conditions, far from mimicking real scenarios. The major contributions of this work are twofold: first, we present an AR-based quality control system capable of generating virtual content to guide operators by overlaying information in a video stream while performing real-time validation. The system evaluates the current status of the procedure to ensure the automatic progression to the next phase. Second, an evaluation was conducted in an industrial shop floor during 1 week, with seven operators to verify if the system was robust and understand possible efficiency gains when compared to the alternative, i.e., video instructions. Results showed that AR had a significant impact in procedures’ execution time (reduction of 36%), while reducing the risk of human errors, which means AR technologies may represent a profitable and sustainable solution when applied to real-world industrial scenarios, in the long run.

Lyman-alpha radiation pressure: an analytical exploration

ABSTRACT We study radiation pressure due to Ly α line photons, obtaining and exploring analytical expressions for the force-multiplier, MF(NH, Z) = Fα/(Lα/c), as a function of gas column density, NH, and metallicity, Z, for both dust-free and dusty media, employing a WKB approach for the latter case. Solutions for frequency offset emission to emulate non-static media moving with a bulk velocity v have also been obtained. We find that, in static media, Ly α pressure dominates over both photoionization and dust-mediated UV radiation pressure in a very wide parameter range (16 < log NH < 23; −4 < log [Z/Z⊙] < 0). For example, it overwhelms the other two forces by $\lower.5ex\hbox{$\,\, \buildrel\gt \over \sim \,\,$}10$ (300) times in standard (low-Z) star-forming clouds. Thus, in agreement with previous studies, we conclude that Ly α pressure plays a dominant role in the initial acceleration of the gas around luminous sources, and must be implemented in galaxy formation, evolution and outflow models and simulations.

Analysis of physical properties of granular materials on their numerical models (2D case)

The paper describes a method for determining the density and specific surface of the package of rock particles represented by discs with the size corresponding to the size of the rock fragments of real dump massifs (2D case). The packing method of the particles corresponds to the schemes of dumping used in open-pit mining - areal and peripheral ones. The influence of boundaries, in which the dump is located, on the physical characteristics of this massif - density and porosity - is revealed. It was revealed that the way of formation of the bulk of particles affects its density, especially at the boundaries of the massif. The massif of particles formed in accordance with the area technology of dumping has a denser composition and is less affected by the effect of its boundaries than the massif formed in accordance with the peripheral technology of dumping. The applied method of determining the physical characteristics of the bulk medium differs from the statistical methods (e.g., Monte Carlo) and is well-proven for static media, such as dumps and filtering massifs in open-pit mining.

Do student difficulties with vectors emerge partly from the limitations of static textbook media?

We investigate a possible role played by the limitations of static textbook media in student difficulties with vectors, based on results from two qualitative studies and other related work. The first study investigates students’ reasoning on problems related to vectors, elicited through written responses and stimulated-recall type interviews. The analysis of the data reveals a pattern of dominant algebraic reasoning in students’ reasoning about vectors. The second study is an analysis of the treatment of vectors in textbooks used by students, which reveals a pattern of under-emphasising the geometric aspects of vectors. We interpret this trend as leading from the limitations of the static paper-based medium in allowing geometric manipulations. Teaching and learning practices in Indian classrooms are dominated by static media—in the form of textbooks, notebooks, workbooks, lecture-notes, chalk-board and written assessments. These possibly constrain the actions and imagination of teachers and students, when learning formal systems with dynamic elements, such as vectors. Further, textbooks have immense institutional authority in the Indian education system, and they are indispensable, given the resource constraints. They thus define the nature of classroom practices, and shape the content-related ecosystem. Thus, it is plausible that the limitations of textbooks, and the dependence of classroom practice on textbooks, aggravates the limitations in students’ reasoning-behaviour, resulting in the similar patterns seen in our two studies. This semblance warrants further empirical investigations into the relationship between the nature of the medium and students’ reasoning-behaviour, especially given the emerging role of digital media in education.

Perfectly matched layer absorbing boundary conditions for Euler equations with oblique mean flows modeled with smoothed particle hydrodynamics.

Absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs) play a critical role in the simulation of sound or wave propagation problems. This paper proposes a technique of space-time transformed perfectly matched layer (PML) boundary condition implemented in a widely used mesh-free method called smoothed particle hydrodynamic (SPH) method, to absorb the outgoing sound waves with oblique shear mean flow. Special consideration is given to the particle features of the SPH, and the PMLs are formulated to correct the truncation error of SPH and absorb the outgoing wave at the same time, aiming to reduce the storage and computational cost in the infinite computational domain. Because the group velocity and phase velocity of the outgoing sound waves in the PMLs may be in different directions, exponentially growing pseudo reflections can result. The authors thus employ space-time transformation to eliminate the reflections effectively in PML boundaries for stable solutions. Moreover, a uniform framework of PML absorbing boundary conditions for Euler equations in the cases of arbitrary oblique mean flow and static media is derived. Finally, the present PML-SPH method with this stable absorbing boundary is applied to simulate sound waves propagating with mean flow. The obtained numerical results agree very well with the reference results.

A dynamic culture platform enhances the efficiency of the 3D HUVEC-based tube formation assay.

Cell-based in vitro biological models traditionally use monolayer cell cultures grown over plastic surfaces bathing in static media. Higher fidelity to a natural biological tissue is expected to result from growing the cells in a three-dimensional (3D) matrix. However, due to the decreased rate of diffusion inherent to increased distances within a tridimensional space, proper fluidic conditions are needed in this setting to better approximate a physiological environment. To this aim, we here propose a prototypal dynamic cell culture platform for the automatic medium replacement, via periodic perfusion flow, in a human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVECs) culture seeded in a Geltrex™ matrix. A state-of-the-art angiogenesis assay performed in these dynamic conditions showed sizable effects with respect to conventional static control cultures, with significantly enhanced pro-(dual antiplatelet therapy [DAPT]) and anti-(EDTA) angiogenic compound activity. In particular, dynamic culture conditions (a) enhance the 3D-organization of HUVECs into microtubule structure; (b) accelerate and improve endothelial tube formation by HUVECs in the presence of DAPT; (c) are able to completely revert the blocking effects of EDTA. These evidence emphasize the need of setting proper fluidic conditions for a better approximation of a physiological environment as an appropriate evolution of current cell culture paradigms.

Induced callus from seedlings of Peganum harmala L. and studying harmine compound concentration in vitro and in vivo by GC analysis

Plant tissue culture considers a benefit biotechnological technique for scientific research especially the production of undifferentiation callus cells and regeneration through suspension or static media. The seedlings of Peganum harmala was used as a source to produce callus mass in vitro in static media through different tissue culture media supplemented by varying combinations of plant growth regulators (PGR). The result illustrates that 2 mg/l of Kinitine with 0.5 mg/l of 2, 4-D was efficient to stimulate callus induction with percent 100% in stem and root of P. harmala and this combination gave a high fresh weight, 1954 mg in root and 1170mg in stem and high dry weight in root and stem was 74.60, 60.30 respectively. In a comparative analysis through gas chromatography (GC) the stem and root in field recorded harmine concentration 56.13 and 40.95 μg respectively, which was higher than the in vitro callus induction from stem and root, which may be due to the fact that field plants have not been exposed to plant hormones with concentrations higher than the normal level, which reduced the stimulation of cells producing active compounds.

3D Primary Hepatocyte Culture Systems for Analyses of Liver Diseases, Drug Metabolism, and Toxicity: Emerging Culture Paradigms and Applications.

Recent research has shown that the maintenance of relevant liver functions ex vivo requires models in which the cells exhibit an in vivo-like phenotype, often achieved by reconstitution of appropriate cellular interactions. Multiple different models have been presented that differ in the cells utilized, media, and culture conditions. Furthermore, several technologically different approaches have been presented including bioreactors, chips, and plate-based systems in fluidic or static media constituting of chemically diverse materials. Using such models, the ability to predict drug metabolism, drug toxicity, and liver functionality have increased tremendously as compared to conventional in vitro models in which cells are cultured as 2D monolayers. Here, the authors highlight important considerations for microphysiological systems for primary hepatocyte culture, review current culture paradigms, and discuss their opportunities for studies of drug metabolism, hepatotoxicity, liver biology, and disease.