Statewide Land Research Articles

Land access for direct market food farmers in Oregon, USA

This article examines the challenges direct market farmers face related to land access in the United States. The number of farms participating in direct market sales is growing in the U.S., though their relative number and share of the food economy is low. The benefits of direct market farms range from fresh, high quality food for urban residents and a stronger local food economy, to potentially greater environmental stewardship and enhanced community food security. However, direct market farmers face significant land access challenges related to affordability, appropriateness, availability, and security. We explore the challenge of land access through the experiences of direct market farmers in the north Willamette Valley region in Oregon. The region has a robust agricultural economy, a growing number of direct market farms, and a history of relatively strong farmland conservation influenced by statewide land use planning requirements. We collected data with a mix of methods, including a survey of direct market farmers; interviews and group discussions with farmers and other key informants; and secondary land use and parcel data. Despite Oregon’s reputation as an agriculture-friendly state with strong consumer interest in local food systems, direct market farmers in the region experience land access challenges, including rising land prices relative to their incomes, a lack of appropriate land, a declining agricultural land base with competition from other buyers, and insecure leasing terms. These challenges suggest an uncertain future for direct market farming and its associated benefits. The article concludes by identifying potential strategies to enhance land access by direct market farmers, and suggesting areas for future research.

MAIN OBJECTIVES OF STATE LAND CONTROL (OVERSIGHT) MANAGEMENT ON THE EXAMPLE OF LAND PLOTS OF MOSCOW REGION

Human use of the land resources of the Russian Federation for the provision of social and financial aspects of life activity is a kind of anthropogenic impact on the component of the natural environment - land. The earth, being a natural object and a natural resource by virtue of Art. 4 of the Federal Law from 10.01.2002 No. 7-FZ On Environmental Protection is considered the subject of en-vironmental protection from pollution, depletion, degradation, spoilage, destruction and other negative effects of economic and other work. The data of the governmental ecological forecast show that the eco-logical state of land resources undergoing intensive anthropogenic influence tends to deteriorate. Problems of improving the ecological status of territories occupy an important place in modern state-wide land and environmental policies. The land as an object of immovable property is considered to be an object of protec-tion of property from violations of the legal procedure for the use of land (non-targeted use of land), viola-tions of the rights of participants in land relations (unauthorized occupation of lands, destruction of land boundaries, illegal disposal). Thus, government land control over the use and protection of the territory as a natural object, land resource and real property should be carried out by officials at the municipal level.

Can urban areas help sustain the preservation of open space? Evidence from statewide referenda

Statewide referenda for land conservation are likely to entail a disparity between people who vote on the referenda and those who live in proximity to conserved areas, which may lead to a lower probability of passage than a more local referendum. This paper examines trends in voting preferences on statewide land conservation referenda in Rhode Island using precinct-level voting data. We identify two similar referenda in 2004 and 2012 and estimate a first difference spatial regression model that seeks to understand the determinants of changes in support over time. Controlling for socioeconomic characteristics and political ideology, we find that referenda support is growing in densely populated communities relative to sparse ones, and there is a multiplicative effect of rapidly growing dense areas. This implies urban areas are becoming critical supporters for the preservation of farm, forest and open space lands, despite being non-proximate to lands at risk of development.

Agriculture as a Resource: Statewide Land Use Programs for the Preservation of Farmland

Agriculture as a Resource: Statewide Land Use Programs for the Preservation of Farmland

Evaluating the influence of conservation plans on land protection actions in Wisconsin, USA

Conservation plans are a common management tool, but are rarely evaluated for their influence on conservation actions. We assessed four statewide conservation plans and 371 local land protection projects developed by a state land management agency in the United States. We asked whether completion of statewide plans and approval of local projects were associated with changes in the amount, location, and landcover composition of subsequently protected lands. We found a weak relationship between statewide plans and land protection actions. Completion of two of four plans was associated with an increase in land protection statewide or within plan boundaries. However, 58% of lands protected within 20years of plan completion were outside plan boundaries. Further, the proportion of statewide land protection activity focused inside plan boundaries was lower or not different after plan completion for three of four plans. Conversely, for >90% of local land protection projects, most land protection occurred after formal project approval compared to before, with much of that activity occurring almost immediately. Forests and wetlands were protected more often than planned, while pasture and crop lands were protected less often than planned. We suggest that conservation plans are most likely to influence land protection actions when dependable, multi-year funding for land protection is present, when public, institutional, and political support for implementation are strong; and when agencies commit to an implementation strategy that links broad-scale plans to specific, local land protection projects and is actionable within the framework of existing administrative rules governing agency land protection.

Georgia Regional Transportation Authority: A Case Study of an Innovative Regional Planning Institution

The Georgia Regional Transportation Authority (GRTA), a new regional planning institution, is a governor-appointed body of 15 regional leaders with broad authority over land use and transportation planning throughout the state. Created in the summer of 1 999, GRTA emerged from a public-private process that sought to reform transportation planning in the Atlanta region, but its authority far surpasses what was initially conceived by that public-private effort, theMetropolitanAtlantaTransportationInitiative(MATI). Thispoper is a case study of the MATI process and the emergence of GRTA that illustrates in some detail theformation ofa new and innovative regional planning institution. What it lacks in comparative breadth, it supplies in step-by-step analysis of how a group of business people and civic leaders reformed the planning process in a major American metropolitan region. One tentative conclusion is that theprivate sector can play a major role in regional planning, as they did in the development ofthis new regional planning institution. The case study also illustrates that while GRTA's initialfocus will be to solve Atlanta's transportation problems, GRTA may become an implementation vehicle for the Georgia Planning Act, a comprehensive but underutilized statewide land use planning statute.

Design and Development of a Statewide Land Use Transport Model for Alberta

The fast growing of economy in Alberta, Canada makes a well-ahead statewide planning a pressing task. A statewide land use transport model is being developed at the University of Calgary for responding such a need. The model is based on the framework of PECAS, which represents Production, Exchange and Commodity Allocation System. The virtue of such a system is that it brings the transportation planning in the context of the whole economy by considering the fundamental root of transport demand, which is the exchange of goods, services, and labor among various activities, such as industries, services, households, and government. The PECAS framework is a spatial economic simulation system with a focus on transportation planning and land development planning, which has recently been developed and applied in a number of states and metropolitan regions in the United States. It draws from previous modeling experience, especially MEPLAN and TRANUS, and provides significant improvements in theoretical basis and behavior representation. This paper describes the design and development of such a model for the Canadian province of Alberta in terms of its data sources, novelty, and strategies for further calibration.

Mapping Tension: Remote Sensing and the Production of a Statewide Land Cover Map

This article examines the process by which remotely sensed land cover maps work to both simplify and complicate landscapes. The central argument is not merely that the construction of land cover maps is complex, but that the points of complexity often arise through the process of trying to simplify. In other words, the forces of complexity are intimately connected to the forces of simplicity and vice versa. This article takes as a case study the production of WISCLAND, (Wisconsin Initiative for Statewide Cooperation on Landscape Analysis and Data), a statewide land cover map of Wisconsin derived from remote sensing data and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) technologies and proceeds by analysis of mapping methodology, practice, and representation. In addition to the development of a more nuanced critique of the use of land cover maps, it facilitates the possibility for a constructive dialogue between remote sensing practitioners and the critical GIS community.

Statewide land cover derived from multiseasonal Landsat TM data: A retrospective of the WISCLAND project

Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data were the basis in production of a statewide land cover data set for Wisconsin, undertaken in partnership with U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS) Gap Analysis Program (GAP). The data set contained seven classes comparable to Anderson Level I and 24 classes comparable to Anderson Level II/III. Twelve scenes of dual-date TM data were processed with methods that included principal components analysis, stratification into spectrally consistent units, separate classification of upland, wetland, and urban areas, and a hybrid supervised/unsupervised classification called “guided clustering.” The final data had overall accuracies of 94% for Anderson Level I upland classes, 77% for Level II/III upland classes, and 84% for Level II/III wetland classes. Classification accuracies for deciduous and coniferous forest were 95% and 93%, respectively, and forest species' overall accuracies ranged from 70% to 84%. Limited availability of acceptable imagery necessitated use of an early May date in a majority of scene pairs, perhaps contributing to lower accuracy for upland deciduous forest species. The mixed deciduous/coniferous forest class had the lowest accuracy, most likely due to distinctly classifying a purely mixed class. Mixed forest signatures containing oak were often confused with pure oak. Guided clustering was seen as an efficient classification method, especially at the tree species level, although its success relied in part on image dates, accurate ground truth, and some analyst intervention.

The utility of estimating net primary productivity over Alaska using baseline AVHRR data

Net primary productivity (NPP) is a fundamental ecological variable that provides information about the health and status of vegetation communities. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, or NDVI, derived from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) is increasingly being used to model or predict NPP, especially over large remote areas. In this article, seven seasonally based metrics calculated from a seven-year baseline NDVI dataset were used to model NPP over Alaska, USA. For each growing season, they included maximum, mean and summed NDVI, total days, product of total days and maximum NDVI, an integral estimate of NDVI and a summed product of NDVI and solar radiation. Field (plot) derived NPP estimates were assigned to 18 land cover classes from an Alaskan statewide land cover database. Linear relationships between NPP and each NDVI metric were analysed at four scales: plot, 1-km, 10-km and 20-km pixels. Results show moderate to poor relationship between any of the metrics and NPP estimates for all data sets and scales. Use of NDVI for estimating NPP may be possible, but caution is required due to data seasonality, the scaling process used and land surface heterogeneity.

Statewide Non-Point-Source Pollution Assessment Methodology

We present a new methodology for performing Virginia’s statewide, watershed-level non-point-source pollution assessment. The problems and inconsistencies inherent in previous methodologies were addressed and improved upon. The revised methodology utilizes geographic information systems technology, a database management system, and computer modeling. Statewide land cover, soils, and topographic digital data were used to develop input parameters for a simple nutrient and sediment loading model, resulting in an assessment based on estimated loadings for each of the predefined 493 hydrologic units in the state. The resulting model output includes runoff volume, sediment loading, and dissolved and sediment-attached nitrogen and phosphorus. The estimated loads were used to rank the hydrologic units for potential non-point-source pollution and compared with rankings from a previous assessment. The revised methodology is based on annual pollutant loadings, and no attempts were made to “weight” or subjectively impose importance to sources or constituents as with the previous methodology. The new methodology, resulting watershed priorities, and recommendations for further refinement are presented in this paper.

Site and landscape conditions at white-tailed deer/vehicle collision locations in Illinois

Motor vehicle collisions with white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) present several problems including danger to humans, vehicle damage, and deer mortality. Knowledge of factors influencing deer movements onto or across roads and highways may reduce deer/vehicle collisions on existing roads, and improve planning for future roads. We used remotely sensed data to determine characteristics associated with high accident areas. Topographic features and highway construction variables considered conducive to deer/vehicle accidents were measured around high accident road segments (≥15 accidents from 1989–1993) and randomly selected control sites. Variables were measured on aerial photographs and topographic maps within a 0.8 km radius of the road segments. Landscape composition and spatial structure were quantified with the computer program fragstats, using a statewide land cover classification derived from Landsat V TM satellite imagery. A logistic regression model composed of site variables predicted that greater distance to forest cover decreased the probability of a road segment being a high deer/vehicle accident site. The presence of adjacent gullies, riparian travel corridors crossing the road, and public recreational land within the 0.8 km radius increased this probability. A model using only landscape metrics derived from satellite imagery predicted that greater landscape diversity and shorter distances between nearby forest patches increased the probability of a road segment being a high deer/vehicle accident site. Both models discriminated between high and low deer kill sites. Therefore, proactive management of negative deer/human interactions may be accomplished through remote sensing and geographical information systems.

The Effects of Regional Land Use Control in Oregon: A Theoretical and Empirical Review

This paper examines the impact of state government in the Oregon land use program. For several reasons the State of Oregon offers an ideal setting for examining the impact of state participation in land use regulation. First, Oregon is a pioneer in statewide land use regulation. The Oregon land use statutes were enacted in 1973, long enough ago to have had measurable impacts. Second, the Oregon land use program requires both state and local participation in land use regulation. In 1974 the Oregon State Land Conservation and Development Commission (LCDC), a governor-appointed commission, adopted 19 statewide land use goals and guidelines. Subsequently, every local government had to construct comprehensive land use plans in conformance with these goals and guidelines or suffer stiff non-compliance penalties and/or state preemption of land use authority. Compliance with the goals and guidelines is determined through an acknowledgement process by the Department of Land Conservation and Development (DLCD), the administrative arm of the LCDC. All of the comprehensive plans of the 246 local governments have now been acknowledged by the DLCD. As a result, the Oregon land use program contains a mix of state and local land use controls. Third, the Oregon land use program has been the subject of considerable theoretical and empirical research. This research offers insights into the impacts of state participation in land use regulation.

Social Organization, Profit Cycles, and Statewide Land Use Controls: Welcome to Oregon—Enjoy your Visit

Land use control in the U.S. has in many places been elevated to higher, more extensive levels of government, causing considerable controversy as to whose interests such reform serves. This article offers a political economic analysis of statewide land use controls, focusing on the land use program of Oregon. Using empirical evidence based on the state's population characteristics, industries, and elections featuring referenda to repeal the land use statutes, the author suggests that statewide land use controls in Oregon are supported by identifiable private interests: amenity-based industries, high-income professionals and technicans, and citizens in urban areas. The article suggests how changes in the structure of Oregon society—reflecting the development of the state's economy—led to the development of statewide land use controls.

Self-Interest and Voter Support for Oregon's Land Use Controls

Abstract Local land use controls have received considerable attention from political economists, but statewide land use controls have not. This research note offers an analysis of the political economy of statewide land use controls in Oregon. Unlike two previous studies, which indicate that such controls generally serve the upper class, this research note asserts that the statewide land use program in Oregon subsumes four identifiable issues, which generate the necessary supporting coalition among distinct groups. These results suggest that the political viability of statewide land use programs depends critically on public perception of how they address the issues that affect the voters.

The designation of geothermal subzones in Hawaii

The issue of maintaining a balance between economic development and preservation of the environment is a major concern in Hawaii, which in 1961 became the first state in the nation to adopt sweeping statewide land use controls. Hawaii suffers from a very high dependence upon imported petroleum as its primary energy source, and has declared a policy of accelerating the transition to alternate energy sources. Geothermal energy is believed to exist in abundant quantity, especially on the Island of Hawaii. In order to ensure that geothermal development occurs in the most appropriate areas, the State in 1983 adopted legislation to establish geothermal resource subzones where geothermal activities may take place. Six subzones have subsequently been established.

FISCAL IMPACT ANALYSIS AND THE PYRAMID MALL CASE

ABSTRACTStates and towns are increasingly using a new impact analysis technique (one that shows many of the virtues and vices of impact planning generally): fiscal impact analysis. In a recent celebrated case in Vermont, the Pyramid Mall case, in which a shopping center was refused a development permit under “Act 250”, Vermont's state–wide land use law, heavy use was made of fiscal impact analyses. This case raised serious issues about the financial and technical capability of the state – indeed any state – to administer fiscal impact analysis, and about the adequacy of the law to properly guide the use of impact analysis. The central question running throughout the Pyramid Mall case and the use of fiscal impact analyses in that case is whether the administration of land use controls pursuant to fiscal impact analysis is improper government control of competition. The Pyramid Mall case offers an illustration of the effort to control both competition among private units and competition among municipalities; a study of the case reveals the extent to which the effort is effective, optimal, and equitable. The inadequacy of the Vermont laws enabling fiscal impact analysis emerges, and the shallowness of existing judicial review of fiscal impact analysis becomes evident. Guidelines for a proper legal approach to fiscal impact analysis are suggested and alternative mechanisms of review are suggested.

The role of the Cadastre in a statewide land information system

Abstract This paper examines the relationship of the three major components in any cadastral system, namely land registration, cadastral surveying and large-scale cadastral mapping, to a statewide parcel-based land information system. Particular emphasis is given to New South Wales, although many of the comments have application to similar cadastral systems in Australia and overseas.

Sensor data for forest policy information

NASA-Ames Research Center has investigated the role and performance capabilities of the Landsat Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS) for forest policy analysis for the past four years in cooperation with the California Department of Forestry. A thorough series of studies, from a statewide land cover map to smaller, highly detailed studies including collateral data, have been conducted with a view to comprehensive forest policy needs. The strengths and limitations of MSS data have been evaluated. Some observations about the information needed from new satellite sensors such as the Thematic Mapper are discussed against this background.

Differential assessment and state land use controls in Hawaii

Discussion of Hawaii's experience suggests both advantages and difficulties in establishing complementary relationships between differential agricultural assessment and statewide land use controls. In Hawaii, as elsewhere, differential assessment was guided by traditional rent theory with valuations increasing progressively with higher quality lands. Actual practice indicated conservation purposes were better served by a more regressive structure. This suggests a restructuring of assessment rates for states which continue to rely on this method for farmlands preservation purposes, assuming distributional equity issues are dealt with.