State Prison Research Articles

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the experiences of incarcerated pregnant people

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately impacted incarcerated populations, yet few studies have investigated the specific effects on incarcerated pregnant people. This study compares pregnant people’s experiences of pregnancy and parenting in prison before and during the pandemic in order to explore the impacts of COVID-19 on this population.MethodsWe conducted semi-structured interviews with pregnant people at a state prison as part of a larger study on pregnant people’s experiences during incarceration. Interviews explored participants’ experiences and decision-making related to pregnancy and parenting while incarcerated. This secondary analysis compared interviews conducted between June 2019 and March 2020 (pre-COVID-19) to interviews conducted between June and November 2020 (during COVID-19). Interviews conducted during the pandemic included questions about the impact of COVID-19 on participants’ experiences. Brief three and six-month follow-up interviews were conducted when possible.ResultsCOVID-19 introduced new stressors and exacerbated preexisting stressors around participants’ reproductive and parenting experiences. Three major themes emerged: 1) incarceration causes mental, emotional, and physical distress during pregnancy and parenting; 2) COVID-19 worsened conditions of incarceration, contributing to participants’ distress; and 3) the introduction of quarantine protocols during the pandemic felt uniquely punitive for pregnant and postpartum people.ConclusionsThe COVID-19 pandemic was characterized as a major crisis and primary threat to public health, particularly for incarcerated individuals. Yet just as COVID-19 exacerbated preexisting disparities for marginalized, non-incarcerated communities, incarcerated pregnant people similarly described a “worsening” of already-intolerable conditions. The indiscriminate application of quarantine protocols for pregnant people reflects broader carceral logics of control that do not account for the wellbeing of pregnant and postpartum people and their infants, as evidenced by current practices of infant separation, a lack of support, and physically taxing living conditions.

U.S. corrections officers’ discourse about dementia

The United States has more prisoners than any other country in the world: more than 1.5 million persons were housed in state and federal prisons in 2020. A sizeable percentage are ageing; Physician’s Weekly estimates that by 2030, people aged over 50, the age at which the incarcerated are considered to be ‘old’, will make up one-third of the U.S. prison population. That group will include a great many persons who have or are developing dementia and who are guarded by correctional officers. We can, then, consider that correctional staff as well as prisoners form an overlooked dementia care minority. Using conversation and discourse analysis, we focus on epistemic modal adverbs as discourse markers in spoken commentary by current correctional officers about prisoners with dementia, as some markers can signal an uneasiness with which they position themselves as knowledgeable about rights and duties in ageing and dementia. Officers frame their discourse to identify concerns about a prison system that deals poorly with inmate losses of cognitive ability and memory and suggest a need for additional training and support in communicating with incarcerated older prisoners who may have dementia.

Implementation of Fulfillment of Rights Prisoners in State Prison Houses Class II B Bangli

The development of Correctional Inmates (WBP) at the Class II B Bangli State Detention Center (Rutan), aims to improve morals and character as well as providing a deterrent effect for WBP. The detention center as the technical implementer of correctional development for WBPs is tasked with developing WBPs, which of course involves the WBPs themselves, detention center officers and the community. Bangli Detention Center is one of the detention centers in Bali Province, which is located in Bangli Regency. The Bangli Detention Center, which is located at Banjar Bebalang Bangli, accommodates WBPs who not only receive cases from the Bangli District Court, but also receive deposits from WBPs from almost all districts/cities in Bali Province. This causes overcapacity in the Bangli Detention Center. With these conditions, of course there will be obstacles in the implementation of WBP training in the Bangli Detention Center.

Strength and durability of indirect protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection through vaccine and infection-acquired immunity.

Early investigation revealed that COVID-19 vaccines confer indirect protection to fully susceptible and unvaccinated persons, defined as a reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection among social contacts of vaccinated individuals. However, indirect protection from infection-acquired immunity and its comparative strength and durability to vaccine-derived indirect protection in the current epidemiologic context of high levels of vaccination, prior infection, and novel variants are not well characterized. Here, we show that both infection-acquired and vaccine-derived immunity independently yield indirect protection to close social contacts with key differences in their strength and waning. Analyzing anonymized data from a system-wide SARS-CoV-2 surveillance program of 177,319 residents across 35 California state prisons from December 2021 to December 2022 in a case-control design, we find that vaccine-derived indirect protection against Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection is strongest within three months post-vaccination [30% (95% confidence interval: 20-38%)] with subsequent modest protection, whereas infection-acquired immunity provides 38% (24-50%) indirect protection to roommates for 6 months after SARS-CoV-2 infection, with moderate indirect protection persisting for over one year. Variant-targeted vaccines (bivalent formulation including Omicron subvariants BA.4/BA.5) confer strong indirect protection for at least three months [40% (3-63%)]. These results have important implications for understanding the long-term transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 and can guide vaccine policy and public health measures, especially in high-risk environments such as prisons.

Cancer care delivery in prisons: From barriers to best practices.

49 Background: Cancer is the leading cause of death in US prisons. Incarcerated patients with cancer have 92% higher 5-year mortality than the general population with cancer, but little is known about how to improve cancer screening, diagnosis and treatment in this high-risk population. Methods: We conducted interviews with state prison medical directors and primary care clinicians, and medical, radiation and gynecologic oncologists who coordinate or provide cancer care for individuals incarcerated in prison. Participants were recruited via 1) email invitation to participants at a correctional health conference, 2) purposeful sampling using targeted emails to clinicians in prison systems selected for diversity in size, geography and correctional health model (e.g., contracted care), and 3) snowball sampling of individuals from research and participant networks. Participants were interviewed about 1) logistics of cancer care delivery from screening and treatment through end-of-life care, 2) barriers and facilitators to cancer care delivery, and 3) evidence-based strategies to facilitate cancer care in prisons, including best practices. Interview transcripts were analyzed using mixed inductive/deductive thematic content analysis to identify emerging themes. Results: 34 participants from 16 prison systems were interviewed (10 medical directors, 6 PCPs, 14 oncologists, 4 other). Participants reported prison clinicians coordinate most cancer care (e.g., screening, diagnosis and symptom management), while cancer treatment largely occurs in community or academic facilities outside of prison. Common barriers identified included underscreening / delays in diagnosis, complex logistical coordination, poor communication (between patients and oncologists, and prison clinicians and oncologists), inadequate symptom management, dehumanizing practices, loss-to-follow-up after release and that patients often come from marginalized populations. Common facilitators were better access to insurance, cancer screening, and general medical and cancer care than incarcerated patients might receive before/after incarceration. Participants identified multiple ways to improve cancer screening (creating enforceable standards, increasing continuing medical education, implementing electronic medical record reminders, reducing logistical barriers), cancer treatment (implementing navigators within prisons and cancer centers, prioritizing care with oncologist input, keeping care in prisons, decarceration), and transitions to the community (Medicaid activation prior to release, community partnerships to facilitate care transitions). Conclusions: Incarceration imposes multiple barriers to cancer care delivery, but clinicians identified numerous tools to improve cancer care in prison. Future studies should test and optimize these strategies to improve cancer outcomes for incarcerated patients.

Moving Closer to Home Before Release: Evaluating a Step-Down Strategy to Transfer Adults in State Prisons to Local Correctional Systems

Moving Closer to Home Before Release: Evaluating a Step-Down Strategy to Transfer Adults in State Prisons to Local Correctional Systems

Disability rights and disability justice in prison: the limits of state-protected rights and the possibilities of mutual support

Disabled persons are grossly overrepresented among incarcerated persons in U.S. prisons and likely to continue to grow as a group. Prisons are increasingly responsible for protecting the rights of incarcerated persons with disabilities, which includes the provision of accommodations and care. On the basis of thirteen qualitative interviews with persons with disabilities, personal care assistants, and others in a California state prison, the research subjects not only revealed the limits of disability rights in prison, but ways in which corrections officers used accommodations and personal assistance as means of harassing disabled inmates. Despite the failure of rights, persons with disabilities and their allies found ways to access care through mutual relationships and informal networks. This finding supports a disability justice perspective that argues that argues state-sponsored rights have failed specifically marginalized persons with disabilities, but also argues that disability emancipation can be found through peer-based mutual care.

Punishment and survival – incarcerated persons' experiences with extreme heat in Texas prisons

PurposeThe impact of extreme heat on prisons and carceral facilities is becoming increasingly visible, yet remains overlooked by scholars, practitioners and policymakers. Prisons are a unique type of infrastructure designed to severely limit and control the movement of hundreds and even thousands of individuals as a form of punishment. This leads to many significant challenges to mitigating the risk of heat-related illness in prisons and other carceral spaces that have remained overlooked across many disciplines including emergency management, disasters, corrections and public health.Design/methodology/approachFor this study, we analyzed 192 surveys from incarcerated persons in state prisons throughout Texas to understand how incarceration and the punitive prison environment create challenges to managing extreme heat in prisons.FindingsWe found that characteristics of modern incarceration, including communal distribution of resources, crowded conditions and a lack of agency for incarcerated people, create barriers to accessing resources during periods of extreme heat. Furthermore, the punitive nature of the prison environment as manifested in the relationship between staff and incarcerated persons and certain prison policies also create barriers to incarcerated persons accessing resources to reduce their risk of heat-related illness and death.Social implicationsThese issues are particularly relevant to the health and safety of incarcerated persons during periods of extreme temperatures but also speak broadly to the implications of incarceration, disaster risk, and the advancement of human rights for incarcerated people.Originality/valueThis article addresses a gap in the literature by including the perspectives of persons incarcerated in Texas prisons experiencing extreme heat and implicates the characteristics of incarceration and punishment in the production of disaster risk.

Nutritional Characteristics of Menus in State Prisons.

Nutrition-related health disparities plague prisons in the United States. Unregulated and inadequate prison menus may contribute to noncommunicable chronic health conditions in this vulnerable population. The purpose of this research was to assess nutrition offerings provided by prison menus. Researchers requested the most current version of all master menus and associated nutrition analyses for gendered and age-centric (pediatric vs geriatric) menus. Menu and nutrient data were extracted and entered into a spreadsheet for analysis. Prisons serve gendered or nongendered menus to the general population, and 52.9% of prisons offer nongendered menus where males and females receive the same meals. This approach provides excess calories and saturated fat to females. Sodium was served in excess to both males and females. Fruit and vegetable servings on all gendered menus fell short of recommendations. The average prison menu inappropriately offers calories, sodium, and fruit and vegetable servings in a one-size-fits-all menu development method without considering gender, age, and physical activity. Interpretation and application of Dietary Guidelines for Americans are inconsistent. Nutrition guidelines recommending appropriate nutrients and food groups should be developed and available to corrections systems and dietitians. Current prison menu development practices yield inappropriate nutrition for prison populations.

Impulsivity, trauma history, and interoceptive awareness contribute to completion of a criminal diversion substance use treatment program for women.

In the US, women are one of the fastest-growing segments of the prison population and more than a quarter of women in state prison are incarcerated for drug offenses. Substance use criminal diversion programs can be effective. It may be beneficial to identify individuals who are most likely to complete the program versus terminate early as this can provide information regarding who may need additional or unique programming to improve the likelihood of successful program completion. Prior research investigating prediction of success in these programs has primarily focused on demographic factors in male samples. The current study used machine learning (ML) to examine other non-demographic factors related to the likelihood of completing a substance use criminal diversion program for women. A total of 179 women who were enrolled in a criminal diversion program consented and completed neuropsychological, self-report symptom measures, criminal history and demographic surveys at baseline. Model one entered 145 variables into a machine learning (ML) ensemble model, using repeated, nested cross-validation, predicting subsequent graduation versus termination from the program. An identical ML analysis was conducted for model two, in which 34 variables were entered, including the Women's Risk/Needs Assessment (WRNA). ML models were unable to predict graduation at an individual level better than chance (AUC = 0.59 [SE = 0.08] and 0.54 [SE = 0.13]). Post-hoc analyses indicated measures of impulsivity, trauma history, interoceptive awareness, employment/financial risk, housing safety, antisocial friends, anger/hostility, and WRNA total score and risk scores exhibited medium to large effect sizes in predicting treatment completion (p < 0.05; ds = 0.29 to 0.81). Results point towards the complexity involved in attempting to predict treatment completion at the individual level but also provide potential targets to inform future research aiming to reduce recidivism.

Spatiotemporal Facility-Level Patterns of Summer Heat Exposure, Vulnerability, and Risk in United States Prison Landscapes.

Heat is associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality. People who are incarcerated are especially vulnerable to heat exposure due to demographic characteristics and their conditions of confinement. Evaluating heat exposure in prisons, and the characteristics of exposed populations and prisons, can elucidate prison-level risk to heat exposure. We leveraged a high-resolution air temperature data set to evaluate short and long-term patterns of heat metrics for 1,614 prisons in the United States from 1990 to 2023. We found that the most heat-exposed facilities and states were mostly in the Southwestern United States, while the prisons with the highest temperature anomalies from the historical record were in the Pacific Northwest, the Northeast, Texas, and parts of the Midwest. Prisons in the Pacific Northwest, the Northeast, and upper Midwest had the highest occurrences of days associated with an increased risk of heat-related mortality. We also estimated differences in heat exposure at prisons by facility and individual-level characteristics. We found higher proportions of non-white and Hispanic populations in the prisons with higher heat exposure. Lastly, we found that heat exposure was higher in prisons with any of nine facility-level characteristics that may modify risk to heat. This study brings together distinct measures of exposure, vulnerability, and risk, which would each inform unique strategies for heat-interventions. Community leaders and policymakers should carefully consider which measures they want to apply, and include the voices of directly impacted people, as the differing metrics and perspectives will have implications for who is included in fights for environmental justice.

Expanding Hepatitis C Virus Treatment in the New Mexico State Prison System: Using the ECHO Model for Provider and Prison Peer Education.

It is critical to address hepatitis C virus (HCV) in carceral settings to achieve worldwide elimination of the virus. We describe New Mexico's (NM) experience expanding HCV treatment in state prisons, supplemented with Project ECHO (ECHO; virtual mentorship through guided practice) and the NM Peer Education Program (NMPEP). We describe how using these programs may be a model for expanding treatment in prisons globally. ECHO, NM Corrections Department (NMCD) and Wexford Health Services (WHS) collaborate to treat HCV in state prisons and increase HCV knowledge among incarcerated persons using NMPEP. Each person arriving in prison is tested for HCV and those with active infection receive baseline labs, which are reviewed. Patients not meeting criteria for simplified treatment are presented to ECHO for expert guidance. Otherwise, patients are treated by WHS without consultation. NMPEP provides patient-to-patient education in prisons, addressing HCV myths and exploring treatment refusals. From December 2020 to June 2023, 3603 people had HCV viremia. In this study, 1685 people started treatment: 1280 were treated using the simplified algorithm and 405 were presented to ECHO. Of the 988 people who completed treatment and had sustained virologic response (SVR) labs drawn, 89.2% achieved SVR (i.e., cure). Most of the 107 people who did not achieve SVR had presumed reinfection. NMPEP trained 148 peer educators who educated 3832 peers about HCV prevention and treatment. HCV treatment in prisons can be expanded by implementing simplified treatment algorithms, use of the ECHO model for patients with advanced disease and peer education.

Health, Access to Care, and Financial Barriers to Care Among People Incarcerated in US Prisons

Decades-old data indicate that people imprisoned in the US have poor access to health care despite their constitutional right to care. Most prisons impose co-payments for at least some medical visits. No recent national studies have assessed access to care or whether co-pays are associated with worse access. To determine the proportion of people who are incarcerated with health problems or pregnancy who used health services, changes in the prevalence of those conditions since 2004, and the association between their state's standard prison co-payment and care receipt in 2016. This cross-sectional analysis was conducted in October 2023 and used data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics' 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates, a nationally representative sample of adults in state or federal prisons, with some comparisons to the 2004 version of that survey. The state's standard, per-visit co-payment amount in 2016 compared with weekly earnings at the prison's minimum wage. Self-reported prevalence of 13 chronic physical conditions, 6 mental health conditions, and current severe psychological distress assessed using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale; proportion of respondents with such problems who did not receive any clinician visit or treatment; and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) comparing the likelihood of no clinician visit according to co-payment level. Of 1 421 700 (unweighted: n = 24 848; mean [SD] age, 35.3 [0.3] years; 93.2% male individuals) prison residents in 2016, 61.7% (up from 55.9% in 2004) reported 1 or more chronic physical conditions; among them, 13.8% had received no medical visit since incarceration. A total of 40.1% of respondents reported ever having a mental health condition (up from 24.5% in 2004), of whom 33.0% had received no mental health treatment. A total of 13.3% of respondents met criteria for severe psychological distress, of whom 41.7% had not received mental health treatment in prison. Of state prison residents, 90.4% were in facilities requiring co-payments, including 63.3% in facilities with co-payments exceeding 1 week's prison wage. Co-payments, particularly when high, were associated with not receiving a needed health care visit (co-pay ≤1 week's wage: aOR, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.10-1.86; co-pay >1 week's wage: aOR, 2.17; 95% CI, 1.61-2.93). This cross-sectional study found that many people who are incarcerated with health problems received no care, particularly in facilities charging co-payments for medical visits.

Examining inequities associated with incarceration among breast cancer patients.

Breast cancer treatment patterns and quality of care among patients experiencing incarceration are underexplored. This study examined associations between incarceration and breast cancer disease and treatment characteristics. This retrospective analysis was conducted at a tertiary center in the Southeastern United States that serves as the state's safety-net hospital and primary referral site for the state's prisons. All patients ≥18 years diagnosed with breast cancer between 4/14/2014-12/30/2020 were included. Incarceration status was determined through electronic health record review. Linear regression was used to estimate the association of incarceration with time to treatment. Unadjusted overall survival (OS) was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method with log-rank tests to compare groups. Of the 4329 patients included, 30 (0.7%) were incarcerated at the time of diagnosis or treatment (DI) and 4299 (99.3%) had no incarceration history (NI). Compared to patients who were NI, patients who were DI were younger (p < 0.001), more likely to be unmarried (p < 0.001), and more likely to have family history of breast cancer (p = 0.02). Patients who were DI had an increased time from diagnosis to neoadjuvant chemotherapy (+47.2 days on average, 95% CI 3.9-90.5, p = 0.03) and from diagnosis to surgery (+20 days on average, 95% CI 6.5-33.5, p = 0.02) compared to NI patients. No difference in OS was observed (log-rank p = 0.70). Patients who are incarcerated experienced significant delays in breast cancer care. While no differences in mortality were appreciated, these findings are concerning, as they indicate poorer care coordination for patients who are incarcerated. Further research is necessary to understand the full scope of these disparities and elucidate factors that contribute to them.

Intellectual Ability and Sexual Recidivism Risk Assessment: Comparing Predictive Accuracy in an Incarcerated U.S. Sample.

While studies indicate that individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) and borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) are overrepresented among those incarcerated for sexual offenses, there is a paucity of research with respect to risk assessment for this population, particularly among incarcerated U.S. samples. This gap is concerning given that individuals perceived as high risk may be denied bail, given harsher sentences, or subject to civil confinement. The present study examined the predictive validity of the Static-99 and Static-99R, which rely on historical predictors, and the MnSOST-R, which includes a dynamic subscale. Archival records were used to compare individuals with (n = 459) and without (n = 459) ID/BIF released from New Jersey state prisons between 1996 and 2007, with an average follow-up period of 5.7 years. All three instruments demonstrated good predictive validity for those without ID/BIF, while only the MnSOST-R produced a significant AUC value for those with ID/BIF. Reincarceration rates for those with ID/BIF within high-risk groups ranged from 0% to 8%, similar to the overall recidivism base rate of 4%. Results highlight the need for additional research to determine which risk factors should be considered for those with ID/BIF.

Receipt of medications for opioid use disorder before and after incarceration in Massachusetts State prisons, 2014-2019

BackgroundLittle is known about how use patterns of medications for opioid use disorder (MOUDs) evolve from pre-incarceration to post-incarceration among incarcerated individuals with opioid use disorder. This article describes pre- and post-incarceration MOUD receipt during a period when naltrexone was the only type of MOUD offered in a state prison system, the Massachusetts Department of Correction (MADOC). MethodsA retrospective cohort study of individuals with opioid use disorder who had an incarceration episode in MADOC during January 2015 to March 2019. The data source was the Massachusetts Public Health Data Warehouse, a multi-sector data platform that links individual-level data from multiple statewide datasets. We described patterns of MOUD receipt during the four weeks prior to and after an incarceration episode. Multivariable logistic regression models characterized predictors of post-incarceration MOUD receipt. ResultsIn the male sample (n=691 incarcerations), from the pre- to post-incarceration periods, receipt of buprenorphine increased (14.3 % to 18.3 %), naltrexone increased (5.0 % to 10.5 %), and methadone decreased (4.7 % to 1.7 %). Similarly, in the female sample (n=892 incarcerations), from the pre- to post-incarceration periods, receipt of buprenorphine increased (10.3 % to 12.3 %, naltrexone increased (4.5 % to 9.3 %), and methadone decreased (5.0 % to 2.9 %). Much of the post-release naltrexone receipt occurred among participants in MADOC’s pre-release naltrexone program. ConclusionsMOUD receipt was low but increased slightly in the post-incarceration period. This change was driven by increases in buprenorphine and naltrexone and despite decreases in methadone.

The Institutional Hearing Program and the Incarceration-to-Deportation Pipeline

Through our study of the Institutional Hearing Program (IHP), we examine how immigration courts within prisons enforce immigration law over individuals serving criminal sentences. Drawing from interviews with legal services providers, community advocates, and impacted immigrants in New York City, we examine due process, inequality, and legal strategies in the context of the IHP. Findings demonstrate the disproportionate punishment of Black and Brown incarcerated immigrants, as well as restricted access to information, distant placement of IHP prisons, and scarce funding for representing incarcerated individuals in immigration proceedings, all of which create challenges for legal advocates' chances of success. We argue that sanctuary provisions in NYC exclude certain migrants by marking them with the stigma of criminal records in over-surveilled neighborhoods and physically exporting them outside city borders to state prisons, where specific policies toward their expedited deportation (such as the IHP) take place. The IHP is a key site on a pipeline from incarceration to deportation that must be drastically limited, or ultimately eradicated, to ensure justice for criminalized immigrants.

Editorial: Community music and ‘making easy’

Facilitation is a key aspect of community music. While only two of the articles in International Journal of Community Music (IJCM) 17.2 have the word ‘facilitators’ explicitly in the title, all the articles in this issue speak, in their distinct ways, to facilitation/facilitators in community music. Most direct in this regard is the systematic review of research on group singing facilitators by J. Yoon Irons and associates. Other articles in this issue study the activities of the Ostend Street Orkestra in Belgium (Verneert et al.), the Pizzicato Effect in Hume, Australia (Smith et al.), Tàlaidhean Ùra – a Scottish implementation of The Lullaby Project (Tanner, Wilson and Wight), the theatre troupe Sex Worker’s Opera (Flower) and the DocSong method used at in an all-male minimum- and medium-security state prison in the United States (Kirchner). Taken together, the articles in issue 17.2 add to the growing research base on facilitation in community music settings.

Pengaruh Kualitas Layanan Terhadap Kepuasan Pengunjung Rumah Tahanan Negara (Rutan) Kelas IIB Gresik

This research aims to determine the influence of service quality on visitor satisfaction at the Class IIB Gresik State Detention Center, both simultaneously and partially and to determine the percentage influence of 5 variables, Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance. , Empathy (Empathy), Tangibles (Physical Evidence) on visitor satisfaction at the Class IIB Gresik State Detention Center (Rutan). This research is quantitative research with a causal approach. The population in this study were all visitors to the Class IIB Gresik State Detention Center who visited within a period of 1 month, namely in January 2024. The number of samples determined was 100 respondents who had been distributed via a questionnaire via Google form which was distributed by the researcher to the visitors at the time. visitors visit the Class IIB Gresik Detention Center. This research uses a simple random sampling technique to collect respondents and uses the Unknown formula to determine the sample because the population size in this study is unknown. Next, the data was analyzed using instrument tests, classical assumption tests, multiple linear regression tests, F tests, t tests, and simultaneous and partial coefficient of determination tests. The results of the research show that the 5 variables Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance, Empathy, Tangibles have an influence of 76.1%, both simultaneously and partially, on the satisfaction of home visitors. State Prisoner (Rutan) Class IIB Gresik. and 23.9% was influenced by variables not examined in this study.

Controlling Reproduction and Disrupting Family Formation: California Women’s Prisons and the Violent Legacy of Eugenics

Prisons in the United States serve as a site and embodiment of gendered and racialized state violence. The US incarcerates more people than any other nation in both numbers and per capita rates. Individuals incarcerated in women’s prisons are 10% of the total prison population, yet women’s prisons remain understudied, and the violence that occurs in women’s facilities is rampant, widespread, and operates in particular racialized and gendered ways. This paper centers the forced sterilizations that occurred in California state prisons over the last two decades. We consider how reproduction and the nuclear family have served as a primary site of racial capitalism and eugenic ideology. While eugenic policies were popularized and promoted across the US and globally in the 20th century, the violent ideas underlying eugenic ideology have been a constant presence throughout US history. The height of the eugenics era is marked by the forcible sterilization of institutionalized ‘deviant’ bodies. While discussions of eugenics often center these programs, the reach of eugenic policies extends far beyond surgical interventions. We utilize a reproductive justice lens to argue that the hierarchical, racialized social stratification necessary for the existence of prisons constructs and sustains the ‘deviant’ bodies and families that predicate eugenic logic, policies, and practices. In this conceptual paper, we draw from ongoing research to argue that prisons, as institutions and as a product of racial capitalism, perpetuate the ongoing violent legacy of eugenics and name abolition as a central component of the fight to end reproductive oppression.