State Of Overreaching Research Articles

Effect of intensified training on cognitive function, psychological state & performance in trained cyclists

ABSTRACT Athletes often undertake intensified training loads prior to competition with the goal of functionally overreaching for temporary performance enhancement; however, little is known about the impact of this on cognitive function. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of intensified training induced fatigue on cognitive function, psychological state and performance in trained cyclists. Twenty-three trained male cyclists were randomly assigned to an intensified training group or a control group for two-weeks, followed by a two-week taper period. At baseline, one-week, two-weeks and post-taper, participants undertook a series of cognitive, performance, mood and recovery-stress assessments. The training intervention significantly increased training volume, load and strain by 108%, 116% and 151% respectively. Peak and mean power output on a maximal test and time trial significantly decreased by 4.8% and 9.4% following the two-week training intervention compared to baseline, in addition to a 169% change in total mood disturbance and significant disruption to recovery-stress balance. No change in any cognitive measure was observed across the study period. Following a two-week taper, performance, mood and well-being measures returned to baseline. Two weeks of intensified training resulted in overreaching as identified by performance and psychological measures. Cognitive function was not sensitive to intensified training promoting caution with its use as a measure for the early identification of overreaching. Highlights Two-weeks of intensified training significantly increased training volume, load and strain eliciting a state of overreaching in trained male cyclists. Intensified training caused deteriorations in physical performance but did not influence cognitive measures. Mood and recovery-stress balance were negatively affected by intensified training but recovered back to baseline following a two-week taper at a reduced training volume. A two-week taper period following two-weeks of intensified training did not result in improved physiological measures, physical performance parameters or mood above initial baseline values highlighting the need for careful consideration over the purpose, desired outcomes and necessity of intensified training on an individualised basis.

Is Functional Overreaching or Acute Fatigue the Key to the Effects of Concentrated Block Training in Running?

Borszcz, FK, Vieira, MT, Tramontin, AF, Visentainer, LH, and Costa, VP. Is functional overreaching or acute fatigue the key to the effects of concentrated block training in running? J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3485-3496, 2022-This study examined the effects of 5 consecutive days of high- and moderate-intensity training on performance and physiological measures in moderately trained individuals. The relationship of the training organization with the state of overreaching and acute fatigue was investigated. Twenty-four male soldiers (age, 19.3 ± 0.4 years; V̇o2peak, 58.7 ± 3.8 ml·kg-1·min-1) were assigned to 2 training groups for 5 consecutive days of either high- or moderate-intensity training. The subjects underwent incremental and 12-minute time trial tests before, immediately after, 1 and 2 weeks after training. The high- and moderate-intensity sessions were 30 minutes in duration and performed at fixed velocities of 13.3 and 10 km·h-1 (near second and first ventilatory thresholds), respectively. Acute fatigue and overreaching criteria were set as concomitant nonimpairment and impairment, respectively, in the incremental peak velocity and 12-minute time trial performances at posttest immediately after the training block. Data analyses were completed using hierarchical Bayesian's models. In subjects who wer trained at moderate intensity, no performance impairment occurred (i.e., acute fatigue); for the high-intensity training, 5 subjects showed impairment in performance and were classified as overreached. Only in subjects who were acutely fatigued, clear beneficial effects were observed in incremental test peak velocity and 12-minute time trial performances. In moderately trained runners, a block of 5 consecutive days of moderate-intensity training was demonstrated to be a useful strategy for the improvement of performance. However, high-intensity training does not seem to be a safe strategy because of the observations of overreaching and inferior probabilities of performance improvements.

Decreased energy availability during training overload is associated with non-functional overreaching and suppressed ovarian function in female runners.

Low energy availability (EA) suppresses many physiological processes, including ovarian function in female athletes. Low EA could also predispose athletes to develop a state of overreaching. This study compared the changes in ad libitum energy intake (EI), exercise energy expenditure (ExEE), and EA among runners completing a training overload (TO) phase. We tested the hypothesis that runners becoming overreached would show decreased EA, suppressed ovarian function and plasma leptin, compared with well-adapted (WA) runners. After 1 menstrual cycle (baseline), 16 eumenorrheic runners performed 4 weeks of TO followed by a 2-week recovery (131 ± 3% and 63 ± 6% of baseline running volume, respectively). Seven-day ExEE, EI, running performance (RUNperf) and plasma leptin concentration were assessed for each phase. Salivary estradiol concentration was measured daily. Urinary luteinizing hormone concentration tests confirmed ovulation. Nine runners adapted positively to TO (WA, ΔRUNperf: +4 ± 2%); 7 were non-functionally overreached (NFOR; ΔRUNperf: -9 ± 2%) as RUNperf remained suppressed after the recovery period. WA increased EI during TO, maintaining their baseline EA despite a large increase in ExEE (ΔEA = +1.9 ± 1.3 kcal·kg fat free mass (FFM)-1·d-1, P = 0.17). By contrast, NFOR showed no change in EI, leading to decreased EA (ΔEA = -5.6 ± 2.1 kcal·kgFFM-1·d-1, P = 0.04). Plasma leptin concentration mid-cycle and luteal salivary estradiol concentration decreased in NFOR only. Contrasting with WA, NFOR failed to maintain baseline EA during TO, resulting in poor performance outcomes and suppressed ovarian function. ClinicalTrials.gov no. NCT02224976. Novelty: Runners adapting positively to training overload (TO) increased ad libitum energy intake, maintaining baseline EA and ovarian function through TO. By contrast, NFOR runners failed to increase energy intake, showing suppressed EA and ovarian function during TO.

Impairment of Cycling Capacity in the Heat in Well-Trained Endurance Athletes After High-Intensity Short-Term Heat Acclimation.

To investigate the effects of short-term, high-intensity interval-training (HIIT) heat acclimation (HA). Male cyclists/triathletes were assigned into either an HA (n = 13) or a comparison (COMP, n = 10) group. HA completed 3 cycling heat stress tests (HSTs) to exhaustion (60% Wmax; HST1, pre-HA; HST2, post-HA; HST3, 7 d post-HA). HA consisted of 30-min bouts of HIIT cycling (6min at 50% Wmax, then 12 × 1-min 100%-Wmax bouts with 1-min rests between bouts) on 5 consecutive days. COMP completed HST1 and HST2 only. HST and HA trials were conducted in 35°C/50% relative humidity. Cycling capacity and physiological and perceptual data were recorded. Cycling capacity was impaired after HIIT HA (77.2 [34.2]min vs 56.2 [24.4]min, P = .03) and did not return to baseline after 7 d of no HA (59.2 [37.4]min). Capacity in HST1 and HST2 was similar in COMP (43.5 [8.3] min vs 46.8 [15.7]min, P = .54). HIIT HA lowered resting rectal (37.0°C [0.3°C] vs 36.8°C [0.2°C], P = .05) and body temperature (36.0°C [0.3°C] vs 35.8°C [0.3°C], P = .03) in HST2 compared with HST1 and lowered mean skin temperature (35.4°C [0.5°C] vs 35.1°C [0.3°C], P = .02) and perceived strain on day 5 compared with day 1 of HA. All other data were unaffected. Cycling capacity was impaired in the heat after 5 d of consecutive HIIT HA despite some heat adaptation. Based on data, this approach is not recommended for athletes preparing to compete in the heat; however, it is possible that it may be beneficial if a state of overreaching is avoided.

The effects of intensified training on resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition and performance in trained cyclists.

BackgroundRecent research has demonstrated decreases in resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition and performance following a period of intensified training in elite athletes, however the underlying mechanisms of change remain unclear. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate how an intensified training period, designed to elicit overreaching, affects RMR, body composition, and performance in trained endurance athletes, and to elucidate underlying mechanisms.MethodThirteen (n = 13) trained male cyclists completed a six-week training program consisting of a “Baseline” week (100% of regular training load), a “Build” week (~120% of Baseline load), two “Loading” weeks (~140, 150% of Baseline load, respectively) and two “Recovery” weeks (~80% of Baseline load). Training comprised of a combination of laboratory based interval sessions and on-road cycling. RMR, body composition, energy intake, appetite, heart rate variability (HRV), cycling performance, biochemical markers and mood responses were assessed at multiple time points throughout the six-week period. Data were analysed using a linear mixed modeling approach.ResultsThe intensified training period elicited significant decreases in RMR (F(5,123.36) = 12.0947, p = <0.001), body mass (F(2,19.242) = 4.3362, p = 0.03), fat mass (F(2,20.35) = 56.2494, p = <0.001) and HRV (F(2,22.608) = 6.5212, p = 0.005); all of which improved following a period of recovery. A state of overreaching was induced, as identified by a reduction in anaerobic performance (F(5,121.87) = 8.2622, p = <0.001), aerobic performance (F(5,118.26) = 2.766, p = 0.02) and increase in total mood disturbance (F(5, 110.61) = 8.1159, p = <0.001).ConclusionIntensified training periods elicit greater energy demands in trained cyclists, which, if not sufficiently compensated with increased dietary intake, appears to provoke a cascade of metabolic, hormonal and neural responses in an attempt to restore homeostasis and conserve energy. The proactive monitoring of energy intake, power output, mood state, body mass and HRV during intensified training periods may alleviate fatigue and attenuate the observed decrease in RMR, providing more optimal conditions for a positive training adaptation.

Can the Lamberts and Lambert Submaximal Cycle Test Reflect Overreaching in Professional Cyclists?

The Lamberts and Lambert Submaximal Cycle Test (LSCT) consists of 3 stages during which cyclists cycle for 6min at 60%, 6min at 80%, and 3min at 90% of their maximal heart rate, followed by 1-min recovery. To determine if the LSCT is able to reflect a state of functional overreaching in professional female cyclists during an 8-d training camp and the following recovery days. Six professional female cyclists performed an LSCT on days 1, 5, and 8 of the training camp and 3d after the training camp. During each stage of the LSCT, power output and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were determined. Training diaries and Profile of Mood States (POMS) were also completed. At the middle and the end of the training camp, increased power output during the 2nd and 3rd stages of the LSCT was accompanied with increased RPE during these stages and/or the inability to reach 90% of maximal heart rate. All athletes reported increased feelings of fatigue and muscle soreness, while changes in energy balance, calculated from the POMS, were less indicative of a state of overreaching. After 3d of recovery, all parameters of the LSCT returned to baseline, indicating a state of functional overreaching during the training camp. The LSCT is able to reflect a state of overreaching in elite professional female cyclists during an 8-d training camp and the following recovery days.

Submaximal Markers of Fatigue and Overreaching; Implications for Monitoring Athletes.

The regular monitoring of athletes is important to fine-tune training and detect early symptoms of overreaching. Therefore the aim of this study was to determine if a noninvasive submaximal running test could reflect a state of overreaching. 14 trained runners completed a noninvasive Lamberts Submaximal Running Test, one week before and 2 days after finishing an ultramarathon, and delayed onset of muscle soreness and the daily analysis of life demands for athletes questionnaire were also captured. After the ultramarathon, submaximal heart rate was lower at 70% (-3 beats) and 85% of peak treadmill running speed (P<0.01). Ratings of perceived exertion were higher at 60% (2 units) and 85% (one unit) of peak treadmill running speed, while 60-second heart rate recovery was significantly faster (7 beats, P<0.001). Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness scores and the number of symptoms of stress (Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes) were also higher after the ultramarathon (P<0.01). The current study shows that the Lamberts Submaximal Running Test is able to reflect early symptoms of overreaching. Responses to acute fatigue and overreaching were characterized by counterintuitive responses, such as lower submaximal heart rates and faster heart rate recovery, while ratings of perceived exertion were higher.

Decreased Energy Availability During Intensified Training is Associated with Non-Functional Overreaching in Female Runners

PURPOSE: We examined the hypothesis that failing to maintain energy availability (EA, calculated as energy intake (EI) - exercise energy expenditure (ExEE)) during intensified training (IT) would predispose athletes to a state of overreaching (OR; high perceived fatigue and prolonged performance impairment). METHODS: After 4 weeks of baseline training, 16 female runners (28 ± 5 yrs) performed 4 weeks of IT (130% of baseline volume), followed by a 2 week recovery, (REC, 50% of baseline). Over the last 7 days of each phase, ExEE was measured with chest-worn activity monitors (Actiheart) and EI was recorded using my Fitness Pal phone application. Running performance (distance covered during a graded treadmill test) and perceived fatigue (REST-Q) were assessed at the end of each phase to classify athletes as OR or acutely fatigued (AF, increased fatigue but no decrease in performance). VO2max, heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine and blood lactate concentrations were measured at 65, 75 and 85% of VO2max and immediately after maximal exercise. RESULTS: 7 runners became OR and 9 were AF (Δperformance:-9±2% vs +4±2 %). Performance was still suppressed in OR after REC (-6 ± 5%). A significant decrease in EA was found in OR (-178±104 kcal/d), who failed to increase EI with IT. By contrast, AF increased EI (184±48 kcal/d) and maintained EA. ΔEA correlated with Δperformance and ΔVO2max (R = 0.61 and 0.66, p < 0.05). VO2max and peak lactate, epinephrine and norepinephrine, HR and SBP were suppressed in OR, but were maintained in AF after IT. At submaximal intensities at the same speed after IT, AF showed reduced HR, and lactate and norepinephrine responses, while OR showed no change in these variables but did have increased ratings of perceived exertion. CONCLUSIONS: Failure to maintain EA during IT was associated with a state of non-functional OR in female runners. High perceived fatigue and impaired performance in OR was accompanied by blunted physiological responses at maximal exercise and a lack of any desirable cardiovascular or endocrine-metabolic adaptation to submaximal intensities. In contrast, AF runners that increased EI to match ExEE with IT showed improved performance and lower HR, blood lactate and plasma norepinephrine at the same submaximal speeds after IT.

Monitoring performance, pituitary–adrenal hormones and mood profiles: how to diagnose non-functional over-reaching in male elite junior soccer players

ObjectiveTo verify if in male elite junior soccer players a minimum 1-month performance decrease is accompanied by a mood profile and hormone levels typical of non-functional over-reaching (NFOR).DesignA prospective case-control...

Can we detect non-functional overreaching in young elite soccer players and middle-long distance runners using field performance tests?

ObjectiveTo study whether field performance tests can make a valid distinction between non-functionally overreaching (NFO) athletes and control athletes.DesignMonthly field performance tests were used to determine a performance decrement (PD)...

Monitoring for overreaching in rugby league players

The aim of this study was to identify indicators of non-functional overreaching (NFOR) in team sport athletes undertaking intensive training loads. Eighteen semi-professional rugby league players were randomly assigned into two pair matched groups. One group completed 6 weeks of normal training (NT) whilst the other group was deliberately overreached through intensified training (IT). Both groups then completed the same 7-day stepwise training load reduction taper. Multistage fitness test (MSFT) performance, VO2 (max), peak aerobic running velocity (V (max)), maximal heart rate, vertical jump, 10-s cycle sprint performance and body mass were measured pre- and post-training period and following the taper. Hormonal, haematological and immunological parameters were also measured pre-training and following weeks 2, 4 and 6 of training and post-taper. MANOVA for repeated measures with contrast analysis indicated that MSFT performance and VO2 (max) were significantly reduced in the IT group over time and condition, indicating that a state of overreaching was attained. However, the only biochemical measure that was significantly different between the IT and NT group was the glutamine to glutamate (Gln/Glu) ratio even though testosterone, testosterone to cortisol (T/C) ratio, plasma glutamate, and CK activity were significantly changed after training in both groups. Positive endurance and power performance changes were observed post-taper in the IT group confirming NFOR. These changes were associated with increases in the T/C ratio and the Gln/Glu ratio and decreases in plasma glutamate and CK activity. These results indicate that although there was no single reliable biochemical marker of NFOR in these athletes, the Gln/Glu ratio and MSFT test may be useful measures for monitoring responses to IT in team sport athletes.

Changes in Selected Biochemical, Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance Measures during Deliberate Overreaching and Tapering in Rugby League Players

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of overreaching on muscle strength, power, endurance and selected biochemical responses in rugby league players. Seven semi-professional rugby league players (.VO(2max) = 56.1 +/- 1.7 mL . kg (-1) . min (-1); age = 25.7 +/- 2.6 yr; BMI = 27.6 +/- 2.0) completed 6 weeks of progressive overload training with limited recovery periods. A short 7-day stepwise reduction taper immediately followed the overload period. Measures of muscular strength, power and endurance and selected biochemical parameters were taken before and after overload training and taper. Multistage fitness test running performance was significantly reduced (12.3 %) following the overload period. Although most other performance measures tended to decrease following the overload period, only peak hamstring torque at 1.05 rad . s (-1) was significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Following the taper, a significant increase in peak hamstring torque and isokinetic work at both slow (1.05 rad . s (-1)) and fast (5.25 rad . s (-1)) movement velocities were observed. Minimum clinically important performance decreases were measured in a multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-up (max) following the overload period. Following the taper, minimum clinically important increases in the multistage fitness test, vertical jump, 3-RM squat and 3-RM bench press and chin-up (max) and 10-m sprint performance were observed. Compared to resting measures, the plasma testosterone to cortisol ratio, plasma glutamate, plasma glutamine to glutamate ratio and plasma creatine kinase activity demonstrated significant changes at the end of the overload training period (p < 0.05). These results suggest that muscular strength, power and endurance were reduced following the overload training, indicating a state of overreaching. The most likely explanation for the decreased performance is increased muscle damage via a decrease in the anabolic-catabolic balance.

Monitoring Changes in Performance, Physiology, Biochemistry, and Psychology during Overreaching and Recovery in Triathletes

The present investigation compared responses in previously identified physiological, biochemical, and psychological markers of overreaching in triathletes. Sixteen experienced male triathletes (.VO(2max) [mean +/- SD] = 55.7 +/- 4.9 mL . kg (-1) . min (-1), age = 31.3 +/- 11.7 yr) were divided into matched groups according to physical and performance characteristics, and were randomly assigned to either intensified training (IT) or normal training (NT) groups. Physiological, biochemical, and psychological measures were taken at baseline, following four weeks of overload training and following a two-week taper. The IT group completed 290 % greater physical training load than the NT group during the overload period. The subjects completed a 3-km run time trial (3-km RTT) each week in order to assess the time course of change in endurance performance. 3-km RTT performance was significantly reduced (3.7 +/- 7.5 %; p < 0.05) following four weeks of overload training in the IT group confirming a state of overreaching. During the same period, 3-km RTT performance significantly improved in the NT group (3.0 +/- 1.1 %; p < 0.05). Following the two-week taper, 3-km RTT performance significantly improved in the IT group (7.0 +/- 5.6 %; p < 0.05). Hemoglobin concentration significantly decreased and urea increased in both groups during the overload period (p < 0.05). During the taper hemoglobin normalized with a greater increase in the IT group compared to the NT group (p < 0.05). A significant increase in free testosterone to cortisol ratio was also observed in the IT group compared to the NT group during the taper (p < 0.05). No significant changes were observed for any other biochemical variables during the period of investigation. The RESTQ-76 Sport questionnaire showed an impaired recovery-stress state with increased training load, which improved following the taper in the IT group (p < 0.05). These present results suggest that none of the physiological and biochemical variables measured in this study were effective for the early identification of overreaching in experienced triathletes. However, the RESTQ-76 Sport questionnaire may provide a practical tool for recognizing overreaching in its early stages. These findings have implications for monitoring training status in athletes in a practical training setting.

The effects of amino acid supplementation on hormonal responses to resistance training overreaching

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of amino acid supplementation on muscular performance and resting hormone concentrations during resistance training overreaching. Seventeen resistance-trained men were randomly assigned to either an amino acid (AA) or a placebo (P) group and underwent 4 weeks of total-body resistance training designed to induce a state of overreaching. The protocol consisted of two 2-week phases (phase 1, 3 sets of 8 exercises performed for 8-12 repetitions; phase 2, 5 sets of 5 exercises performed for 3-5 repetitions). Muscle strength and resting blood samples were determined before (T1) and at the end of each training week (T2-T5). One-repetition maximum squat and bench press decreased at T2 in the P group but not in the AA group; both groups showed similar increases in strength at T3 to T5. Significant elevations in serum creatine kinase and uric acid were observed at T2 in the P group; the elevation in creatine kinase correlated highly to reductions in 1-repetition maximum squat ( r = −0.67, r 2 = 0.45). Significant elevations in serum sex hormone–binding globulin were observed during overreaching in the P group from T2 to T5; this response was abolished in the AA group. Significant reductions in total testosterone were observed in the P group at T4 compared with T1, and total testosterone values were higher for the AA group than for the P group from T2 to T4. Serum 22-kd growth hormone concentrations were elevated at T2 to T5 in P group only. No differences were observed in resting cortisol and insulinlike growth factor 1. Hemoglobin concentrations were significantly reduced at T2 to T5 in the P group. These results indicate that the initial impact of high-volume resistance training is muscle strength reduction and hormonal/biochemical alterations. It appears that amino acid supplementation is effective for attenuating muscle strength loss during initial high-volume stress, possibly by reducing muscle damage by maintaining an anabolic environment.

Time course of performance changes and fatigue markers during intensified training in trained cyclists.

To study the cumulative effects of exercise stress and subsequent recovery on performance changes and fatigue indicators, the training of eight endurance cyclists was systematically controlled and monitored for a 6-wk period. Subjects completed 2 wk of normal (N), intensified (ITP), and recovery training. A significant decline in maximal power output (N = 338 +/- 17 W, ITP = 319 +/- 17 W) and a significant increase in time to complete a simulated time trial (N = 59.4 +/- 1.9 min, ITP = 65.3 +/- 2.6 min) occurred after ITP in conjunction with a 29% increase in global mood disturbance. The decline in performance was associated with a 9.3% reduction in maximal heart rate, a 5% reduction in maximal oxygen uptake, and an 8.6% increase in perception of effort. Despite the large reductions in performance, no changes were observed in substrate utilization, cycling efficiency, and lactate, plasma urea, ammonia, and catecholamine concentrations. These findings indicate that a state of overreaching can already be induced after 7 days of intensified training with limited recovery.

Effects of heavy resistance training on maximal and explosive force production, endurance and serum hormones in adolescent handball players.

To determine the effects of 6-weeks of heavy-resistance training on physical fitness and serum hormone status in adolescents (range 14-16 years old) 19 male handball players were divided into two different groups: a handball training group (NST, n = 10), and a handball and heavy-resistance strength training group (ST, n = 9). A third group of 4 handball goalkeepers of similar age served as a control group (C, n = 4). After the 6-week training period, the ST group showed an improvement in maximal dynamic strength of the leg extensors (12.2%; P < 0.01) and the upper extremity muscles (23%; P < 0.01), while no changes were observed in the NST and C groups. Similar differences were observed in the maximal isometric unilateral leg extension forces. The height of the vertical jump increased in the NST group from 29.5 (SD 4) cm to 31.4 (SD 5) cm (P < 0.05) while no changes were observed in the ST and C groups. A significant increase was observed in the ST group in the velocity of the throwing test [from 71.7 (SD 7) km x h(-1) to 74.0 (SD 7) km x h(-1); P < 0.001] during the 6-week period while no changes were observed in the NST and C groups. During a submaximal endurance test running at 11 km x h(-1), a significant decrease in blood lactate concentration occurred in the NST group [from 3.3 (SD 0.9) mmol x l(-1) to 2.4 (SD 0.8) mmol x l(-1); P < 0.01] during the experiment, while no change was observed in the ST or C groups. Finally, a significant increase (P < 0.01) was noted in the testosterone:cortisol ratio in the C group, while the increase in the NST group approached statistical significance (P < 0.08) and no changes in this ratio occurred in the ST group. The present findings suggested that the addition of 6-weeks of heavy resistance training to the handball training resulted in gains in maximal strength and throwing velocity but it compromised gains in leg explosive force production and endurance running. The tendency for a compromised testosterone:cortisol ratio observed in the ST group could have been associated with a state of overreaching or overtraining.

Recovery from infectious mononucleosis after altitude training in an elite middle distance runner.

OBJECTIVES: This investigation was designed to monitor altitude acclimatisation in an elite cohort of distance runners and follow the subsequent recovery from infectious mononucleosis which developed in one of these...