Wartime State Research Articles

The ‘People’s War’ in Concrete and Stone: Death and the Negotiation of Collective Identity in Second World War Britain

Abstract This article explores ideas and feelings about the burial of the war’s dead, and their memorialisation. It investigates the relationship between a drive to remember the conflict’s dead as members of the collective wartime nation, and a desire by many of the bereaved to emphasise familial ties and the individual lives of the dead. While this was not a new concern—and had already been seen, for example, in debates about where to bury, and how to commemorate, the dead of the First World War in Britain—it gained an additional politics in the Second World War. In this conflict, ideas about the nation, about the state’s duty to its citizens and about citizens’ reciprocal duties towards the wartime state were interwoven with ideas about domestic reconstruction in the war’s aftermath. This article traces the articulation of these ideas through contemporary discussions of, and feelings about, burial and memorialisation, using these as a means of thinking about the meaning of the ‘people’s war’ both during and after the conflict.

"WAR STATE" AND "WELFARE STATE" SYMBIOSIS IN THE POST-WAR RECONSTRUCTION OF UKRAINE

The purpose of this study is to analyse the impact of the war on social protection and social security in the country, to examine the interdependence between the level of social security of the population and the military power of the state, to develop effective mechanisms for strengthening social protection in Ukraine during the war and its post-war recovery. Methodology. The use of multi-criteria analysis of integral indices such as the index of security threats, the index of refugees and displaced persons, the index of comprehensive national power, as well as the use of formulas for calculating the power of the state, made it possible to trace the impact of the war on the social component, the development of social security, the institutionalisation process of social protection systems, the creation of ministries of national welfare in order to overcome the socio-economic consequences of the war. The results of the study demonstrate the synergistic effect of strengthening the state's defence capabilities, its military strength and increasing the effectiveness of social policy, the level of social security of the country's citizens. Practical implications. The Ukrainian model of state functioning in times of war is defined as a symbiosis, a combination of effective social protection policy and strengthening the country's military power through systematic support of the army: "a strong home front is a strong army". Value/Originality. Russia's full-scale war against sovereign Ukraine, like a litmus test, has revealed the instability of the global system and convincingly proves the need to develop the Ukrainian model of a "social welfare state in wartime" with an emphasis on strengthening the military component.

The impact of war on the rules of implementation of public-private partnership in the cultural sector of Ukraine

Formulation of the problem. Public-private partnership is an effective mechanism for providing additional resources for the development of culture, and in Ukraine, this mechanism can help restore destroyed infrastructure objects and ensure a proper level of protection of cultural heritage in the conditions of armed conflict. However, successful implementation of such a partnership requires compliance with certain regulatory, legal, and financial-economic conditions, and the state must be a leading partner in this process. Analysis of recent research and publications. Leading domestic scientists cons- tantly research economic and financial problems of the development and popularization of national culture using public-private partnership. However, the war has presented new challenges for Ukraine, which makes the search for effective solutions to improve the mechanisms for regulating public-private partnerships in the cultural sphere with consideration of its specificities an ongoing process. Presenting main material. The article explores the main causes and problems that impede the development of public-private partnerships in Ukraine and require legislative changes in the current stage. The consequences of the Russian military invasion for the cultural sphere of Ukraine and the domestic economy in common are considered. The normative and legal framework for regulating the mechanisms of public-private partnerships in the process of rebuilding the state in wartime and post-war times, in particular the restoration and functioning of the cultural sphere, is analyzed. An overview of legislative changes aimed at regulating urgent issues in the field of public-private partnerships is provided. Suggestions for improving the regulation mechanisms of public- private partnerships in the cultural sphere of Ukraine, taking into account the specific features of this sphere, are presented. It should be noted that in the formation and implementation of public-private partnerships in the field of culture, its peculiarities must be taken into account. Culture is a sphere of activity that is of great importance for national development, influences political transformation of the country, and is the basis on which consolidation of Ukrainian society takes place. In addition, the field of culture is regarded by modern scientists as an important factor in the development of human potential, which in the future will have a greater impact on the economy than financial flows and infrastructure. Conclusions. For Ukraine, public-private partnership is the most promising method of attracting investments in the field of culture and heritage preservation. Legislative changes are necessary for successful implementation. The demands of modernity and urgent needs for economic recovery require quick familiarity with new innovative approaches to public-private partnerships and establishing a fair dialogue with businesses. The Ukrainian government is working on improving legislation and taking steps to address urgent problems. Updating the legislative framework, reducing procedures and documents, improving land and tax legislation, strengthening administrative responsibility, and implementing specific features in the implementation of this type of partnership in certain sectors of the economy will contribute to the development of public-private partnerships in Ukraine. This will help to restore the country as quickly as possible after the war.

From the Wartime State of Siege to Weimar’s Early Years: Parliamentarism and States of Emergency in Germany, 1914–1924

ABSTRACT One of the paradoxical – but seldom recognised – aspects of the wartime state of emergency in Germany between 1914 and 1918 is that it went hand in hand with a simultaneous strengthening of parliamentarism. The Reichstag not only approved the granting of extraordinary powers to the unelected Bundesrat (Federal Council) to ‘order all necessary measures required to avert economic harm’ for the duration of the conflict, allowing in effect a temporary suspension of its own legislative rights. It also actively pushed the Bundesrat to go further in using these dictatorial powers, and when this failed, advocated handing them to a specially appointed Reich cabinet instead. Although moves to create such a Reich cabinet were blocked by conservative and military interests during the war itself, what was imagined in 1914–18 in many ways came to be put into practice under the two Enabling Acts passed by the Reichstag in late 1923. As a result of their wartime experience, the centrist parties in the Reichstag had come to the conclusion that in an emergency situation, temporary dictatorship on terms responsibly set by parliament was not only preferable to handing full powers to the military, but also a positive means of safeguarding and fortifying the indirect form of democracy, built on compromise and negotiation between elected representatives of the people, that was the foundation of the Weimar Constitution.

One Empire or Two States? Dualism and States of Emergency in Austria-Hungary Before and During the First World War

ABSTRACT Much has been written about Austria-Hungary under the state of emergency during the First World War. Historians have analysed many aspects of wartime government, among them the political, bureaucratic, and constitutional background since 1867. Emphasis has been placed on the legal regulations that underpinned the state of emergency and their wartime implementation, institutional responsibilities, and the different kinds of hardship emergency decrees imposed on the Habsburg Empire’s diverse population, including the targeting of particular nationalities and political ideologies. Much of this scholarly work, however, focuses solely on one or other of the two halves of the monarchy without looking at their differences and similarities. This article therefore analyses: To what extent did one of the main characteristics of Austria-Hungary as a state, namely its dualism, influence planning for and implementation of the wartime state of emergency? While in both halves of the Monarchy parliamentary legislation transferred authority to the government in the event of a state of emergency, in Austria there were fewer safeguards against the military’s abuse of power. The more significant limitations on the military’s authority in wartime Hungary and the greater powers reserved to its Parliament and judicial system were not sufficient in themselves to reduce the repressive nature of emergency rule or its negative impact on the lives of ordinary citizens.

Sex meets espionage: the romantic enigma in Elizabeth Bowen's feminist spy thriller

ABSTRACT Situating Elizabeth Bowen within a feminist literary history of experimentation with the conventions of popular genre fiction, this essay investigates the innovative generic hybridity of Bowen's WWII spy thriller, The Heat of the Day (1948). Through the imbrication of international espionage and a romance plotline, the novel demonstrates the intrusion of the wartime state into women's everyday lives and intimate relationships. Drawing connections between patriarchal oppression of women's sexual and political lives, Bowen maps the psychological struggle of the thriller onto the interpersonal conflicts of a love triangle, creating a romantic enigma her spy characters must solve. The result of the genre hybridity in Bowen's romance-thriller, I argue, is a rejection of the masculinized notions of patriotism associated with the spy thriller and endemic to the British political system at mid-century, and the reclamation of intimate spaces as sites of feminist political action and solidarity during times of war.

FBI Opposition to German and Japanese Nationalist Organizations in the United States (1941–1945)

In modern research on the history of the United States in World War II, it is quite popular to study the opposition of the American special services and, in particular, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to various organizations of the German and Japanese diasporas in new historical conditions. The appeal to traditional methods of historical research, comparative studies and the principles of historicism will make it possible to more accurately trace the process of tightening the counterintelligence work of the Bureau and the close connection of concerns about the involvement of public organizations in the intelligence activities of the enemy. The broadcast of nationalist ideas by various communities of Germans and Japanese under the auspices of their governments quickly attracted the attention of the FBI, which is in the process of consolidating its powers as the main US counterintelligence service. At the same time, the investigations and trials conducted by the John Edgar Hoover department following these investigations often had an openly political color and increasingly consolidated the beginning of a political investigation in this service. This practice and its implementation ran into a tough contradiction between the legal norms of America, which proclaimed "democratic values," the right to freedom of speech and the needs to strengthen the internal security of the state and society in wartime. All these processes and the associated nuances and complexities are considered on specific examples of the work of federal agents against various pro-German and pro-Japanese organizations in the period 1941-45.

나가노(長野)현 시모이나(下伊那) 지역 가미사토(上郷) 청년회로 본 전시 일본의 통제경제와 좌우 갈등의 봉합

This article explores how the ideological conflict between the left and the right was compromised the lens of the Kamisato Youth Corps (kamisato seinenkai). Members of this organization declined the leadership of the village mayor and elected their representative for themselves. In the 1930s, they transformed this organization as a machine of the state for economic revitalization and war efforts, and continued to operate to support the local community after the war. In this process, youths embraced leftists who chose to work with the wartime state, such as Kitahara Kameji and Hanyū Sanshichi, as leaders of the local community, and became their supporters after 1945. To date, historians tended to portray the conversion of intellectuals mainly as a betrayal, not thoroughly considering what role they came to take through the conversion and what legacies their choice to work with the wartime state were for postwar Japan. By tracing the evolution of the Kamisato Youth Corps, I understand the conversion of leftist youth leaders not as a demise of the left but its settlement in local politics, which shaped a postwar political order. The wealth of primary sources in the Kamisato Village, such as the History of Kamisato Youth Corps, and Kamisato Chronicles makes this village an ideal vantage point to pursue this project.

THE ROLE OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT IN THE EVACUATION OF THE POPULATION DURING HOSTILITIES IN UKRAINE

In the extremely difficult time of aggression by the Russian Federation, the first and most important task for Ukraine's railway transport is to provide logistics for the transportation of humanitarian and military aid, as well as internal movement (evacuation) of the population. The state transport is covered by 2-5 times increased van traffic and passenger traffic. In such a situation it is necessary to control the number of passengers at the stations, to provide them with assistance and advice. The volunteer movement is one of the important conditions for the functioning of the state in wartime. Volunteers at the stations ensure the distribution of passenger flows in individual directions and provide advice on the schedule of trains. Humanitarian aid is now arriving in large quantities and needs to be delivered as soon as possible to places where it is most needed, to cities where active hostilities are taking place and to cities where the flow of internally displaced persons is concentrated. The logic of the movement of passengers must be clearly formed, because in a difficult emotional and physical state, people have a hard time understanding the course of action and the requirements for the carriage of passengers. After analyzing the formed passenger flows in the first days of evacuation, the main directions of movement of citizens were determined. The analysis revealed that the number of passengers in evacuation trains heading west to the country could cause overcrowding in the receiving cities and cause a collapse in urban transport, settlements and food supply. These are the main issues facing the government and the logistics system for moving people and goods across the country. The solution to the acute problem was the possibility of simplifying passenger transportation and the organization of international trains with allied countries, where there is the possibility of transportation without changing the rolling stock through different track widths. The development of such routes has made it possible to simplify the logistics of population movement and reduce the burden on the border service of Ukraine. To reduce the crowds after crossing the borders of Ukraine, a schedule of trains from the nearest railway stations of neighboring countries was developed together with the neighboring states, which facilitates the movement of migrants within the routes of passengers. The second problem is the overcrowding of trains and the complexity of their equipment for flights, as well as the establishment of a system to provide them with drinking water on the routes. Due to sufficient technical equipment, coordinated work of railway transport workers, and their high executive discipline, this chain has been successfully implemented.

The Wartime State and the Cigarette: Darkness and Temporality in Pale Horse, Pale Rider

Although often overlooked due to its sparse occurrence, the symbol of the cigarette offers a new model to understand key themes of darkness and temporality in Katherine Anne Porter’s Pale Horse, Pale Rider. Adam is Miranda’s metaphorical cigarette, a device of light and relief from a society pervaded by the darkness of war and sickness. Despite Miranda’s pleas, Adam is committed to his guaranteed extinguishment serving in the war. The driving motion throughout the novella is that of an unspoken but relentless temporality - the metaphorical cigarette flame ceases into darkness as Adam’s departure nears. This temporality can be understood as a creation of the wartime state, whose systematic movement and organization of human life dominate Adam’s being and hence controls Miranda’s psychological being and self-relation to her world. Porter’s work illustrates the devastating power of the wartime state to impose the metaphysics of inevitable darkness upon its citizens.

Policing and the Legacies of Wartime State Predation: Evidence from a Survey and Field Experiment in Liberia

How does violence during civil war shape citizens’ willingness to trust and rely on state security providers in the post-conflict period? Can post-conflict security sector reform restore perceptions of state security forces among victims of wartime state predation? Using a survey and field experiment in Liberia, we show that rebel-perpetrated violence is strongly positively correlated with trust and reliance on the police after conflict is over, while state-perpetrated violence is not. Victims of wartime state predation are, however, more likely to update their priors about the police in response to positive interactions with newly reformed police officers. We also show that abuses committed by police officers in the post-conflict period are negatively correlated with citizens’ perceptions of the police, potentially counteracting the positive effects of security sector reform. We corroborate our quantitative findings with detailed qualitative observations of interactions between civilians and police officers in the field.

The Detention of Non-Enemy Civilians Escaping to Britain during the Second World War

AbstractThousands of civilians from Allied and neutral countries reached Britain during the Second World War. Nearly all who arrived between 1941 and 1945 were detained for interrogation – an unprecedented course of action by Britain which has nevertheless seldomly been studied. This article focuses on the administrative history of this process and the people it affected. It demonstrates how certain parts of the state treated non-Britons with suspicion throughout the war, long after fears of a ‘fifth column’ had subsided. At the same time, others saw them favourably, not least because many either offered intelligence, intended to volunteer with the Allied Forces, or work for the war industry. Examining how these conflicting views co-existed within a single detention camp, this article thus illustrates the complex relationship that existed between non-Britons and the wartime state, which perceived them simultaneously as suspects, assets, and allies. By making use of the thousands of resulting interrogation reports, the article also offers more detail than currently exists on the gender and nationality background of those who reached Britain, as well as about the journeys they took to escape occupied territory.

ФОРМУВАННЯ ДОСВІДУ ПРАКТИЧНОЇ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ У МАЙБУТНІХ ВІЙСЬКОВИХ ЮРИСТІВ НА ЗАСАДАХ КОМПЕТЕНТНІСНОГО ПІДХОДУ

Стаття присвячена проблемі формування професійної компетентності у майбутніх юристів військових підрозділів. У статті конкретизовано сутність феномену «професійна компетентність майбутніх військових юристів» і визначено його як цілісне, складне особистісне утворення, інтегративну якість особистості, яка поєднує володіння майбутнім фахівцем системою знань, умінь та навичок військово-юридичного спрямування, сформованість професійно важливих якостей особистості юриста, що забезпечують ефективне виконання професійних функцій з метою дотримання й захисту прав і свобод людини, загальних інтересів суспільства та держави в умовах мирного та воєнного часу. У структурі феномену виокремлено загально професійну, особистісну, комунікативну, фахову та військово-спеціальну складові даного феномену, надано їх характеристику. Визначено змістові компоненти професійної компетентності майбутнього військового юриста: знанієво-термінологічний (охоплює загально професійну складову компетентності); професійно-особистісний (поєднує особистісну, комунікативну складові, а також мотивацію до професійної діяльності); професійно-операційний (включає фахові та військово-спеціальні складові компетентності). У статті представлено алгоритм проведення різних типів занять, спрямований на відпрацювання практичних дій, умінь, навичок при вивченні дисциплін циклу професійної підготовки: сприйняття студентом нової інформації (зразків дій, прийомів); усвідомлення й фіксація нової інформації; ознайомлення зі сферою (ситуаціями) її застосування та прикладами використання; оволодіння практичними діями, прийомами самостійного застосування знань; самостійне застосування дій у різних ситуаціях (набуття досвіду практичної діяльності). Розкрито дидактичні можливості супроводження виробничої (юридичної) практики та військового стажування студентів задля набуття майбутніми військовими юристами досвіду практичної діяльності під час їх проходження.

Welfare for Elites: The Student Health Center at Tokyo Imperial University and the Paradox of Medicare in Japanese Meritocracy.

How did the Japanese establish a medical welfare system? In answering this question, historians of modern Japan have accentuated the assertive role of state bureaucrats, especially from those of the Home Ministry (naimushō). Historians of Japanese medicine also emphasized the role of the state. William Johnston, in his pioneering work on tuberculosis in Japan, explored the rise of a hygiene administration on this disease as a state enterprise. In the medical history of Japan, scholars highlighted the significance of the wartime period in the birth of this system. The emphasis on the Japanese wartime state is justified. The Japanese government managed to establish a national health insurance in 1935, while the United States government has not been able to establish a medical insurance for every citizen to this day. However, these scholars have not explored how welfare benefits were distributed to members of Japanese society. This article seeks to fill this historiographical gap by looking at the Student Health Center of Tokyo Imperial University (Tōdai), Japan's first state-established university founded in 1886. This university, I contend, was a critical locus in the birth of medical welfare in Japan. At this university were the most privileged medical facilities and practitioners who could provide medical services, as well as students without stable incomes of their own, thus in need of welfare support. The demand of staff of Tōdai's Student Association to establish a Student Health Center was accepted and realized in 1926, and Tōdai students became the beneficiaries of state-managed medical support. The Tōdai Student Health Center was different from other medicare facilities in that its role was not limited to save students from poverty. Student Health Center practitioners helped students check health for university admission, campus life, and job placement to be white-collar elites. Student Health Center practitioners evaluated students' health when they tried to enter Tōdai and get jobs and inculcated students in how to manage living as mental-worker "gentlemen," in coping with tuberculosis, venereal diseases, and neurotic breakdown. Also, they produced statistics about the health condition of Tōdai students, which immediately stimulated further investment in the facilities of Tōdai authorities for the center. Based on statistical data, Tōdai authorities developed a hygiene campaign against tuberculosis so that students could take advantage the of state-of-the-art treatments inexpensively. As such, Tōdai students became among the biggest beneficiaries of this process. In other words, the Student Health Center had a dual significance at Tōdai: a medicare institution as well as part of privileged campus culture. Tōdai was a symbolic locus that reveals the uneven diffusion of medical welfare benefits in Japanese society. Through the lens of this facility, this article seeks to explore the paradox of welfare in meritocracy that contributed to the formation of the elite class in modern Japan.

'You Have Lost All That Is German of You in the Dock': Immigrant Communities and the Wartime State in London, 1914-18.

This article presents the wartime state in the local context and looks at how the daily activity of local courts and police changed dramatically during the wartime period. It also assesses the complex role that police and local courtrooms played with regards to ethnicity and nationalism. The increasing authority of local courtrooms and the enhanced powers of policing, I argue, amplified the role of the state in certain aspects of London life, but reduced it in others. New demands on local courtrooms and policing could only be accommodated by the redirection of their efforts from pre-war priorities. The traditional roles of the police in addressing 'moral' crimes such as public drunkenness and gambling declined dramatically as policy redirected police resources towards the enforcement of wartime regulations, the support of military conscription and discipline, and the policing of immigrant communities and ethnic minorities, and of 'enemy aliens' in particular. Although the balance of power in the latter case was highly asymmetrical, those brought before the courtroom on accusations of being 'outsiders' or 'enemies' in the national community were not entirely without recourse. The public nature of courtrooms meant that, in some circumstances, they could become sites for the affirmation of rights and national belonging in wartime Britain, rather vehicles for their abrogation.

Managing Colonial Diets: Wartime Nutritional Science on the Korean Population, 1937–1945

Summary This article examines nutrition studies on Korean diets between 1937 and 1945 as a case study on the liaison between nutritional science and total war regimes in the twentieth century. Building on critical scholarship on nutritional science, this article argues that nutritional science—as a scientific governmental technology and racial discourse—served the wartime colonial regime in the Japanese empire aimed at managing the Korean population in the most scientific manner. As a governmental technology, nutritional science produced scientific frameworks and data that shaped state food policies for the efficient mobilisation of Korean diet and labor for war. As a racial discourse, nutritional science construed Korean diets as a scientifically defined nutrition problem. By construing the nutrition problem as an expression of colonial backwardness in need of governmental intervention, nutritional science justified wartime state policies like the school lunch programme as welfare measures to improve the colonial diet and body.

Dead Letters: Censorship and Subversion in New Zealand 1914–1920

“Archivist by day and labour historian by night” Jared Davidson combines his complementary occupations to bring us Dead Letters: Censorship and Surveillance in New Zealand 1914–1920, an engaging book that uses the intimacy of surveillance records to explore broader historical themes of wartime state control and resistance. Davidson places his work in the tradition of “history from below,” and this book achieves some of the best qualities of that tradition; the detailed personal histories bring to life characters that may otherwise have been forgotten, but who are in fact connected to transnational webs of communication and migration of people, political ideas, organisations, and bureaucracies of surveillance and control.

The National Council for Civil Liberties and the British State during the First World War, 1916–1919

Abstract The First World War saw an unprecedented expansion of the executive powers of the British government that radically changed the relationship between individual citizens and the state. This article offers a new perspective on these developments by analysing the activities of the National Council for Civil Liberties (NCCL) between 1916 and 1918. It explores the emergence of civil liberties activism in Britain during the war and its impact on British political culture. The NCCL became an efficiently organised pressure group, campaigning against press censorship, political policing and the suppression of anti-war dissent. This article argues that the innovative campaigning and propaganda methods used by the NCCL mark a moment of innovation that can be described as a revolution in activism. It represents a shift from the grass-roots political associations of the nineteenth century towards more professional forms of political activism that foreshadowed the rise of modern pressure groups and NGOs. The article also explains the emergence of a new discourse about the relationship between civil liberties, democracy and socialism in Britain during the First World War. The NCCL became an important locus for the networks of protest and dissent that emerged in Britain in response to the expansion of the wartime state. The article thus presents a new perspective on the beginnings of civil liberties activism in Britain and the impact of the First World War on its political culture.

Russell and the Other DORA, 1916-18

During the First World War Russell frequently complained about unwarranted encroachments by the wartime state on the sphere of individual freedom. He experienced such encroachments very directly. The Defence of the Realm Act (dora) was the legal instrument through which most official reprisals were visited on him—punitive meas­ures arising from his dogged support for conscientious objectors and a negotiated peace. Under this emergency legislation he was twice convicted and had his freedom of movement curbed. This harsh treatment is well known, but the literature on Russell has not yet systematically examined his relationship with this “other DORA”. Using the Russell Archives, his Collected Papers, and government records in the UK’s National Archives, this paper seeks to establish the legal, administrative and political contexts in which he was prosecuted and sanctioned extra-judicially, and where he sometimes benefitted from DORA’s formidable powers being set aside.

Dejstvo rata i ratnog stanja na međunarodne odnose država

The first part of the paper deals with the effect of the outbreak of war or the state of war, on the international relations of states. Following is a brief overview of the differences between the war as a factual and wartime state as a legal category. Within the special sections, the effect on relations with the enemy (the entry into force of the rules of war and humanitarian law, the termination of diplomatic relations, the effect on treaties, the status of alien enemies), relations with allies, relations with neutral countries (rights and obligations of neutral states, the position of neutral aliens, etc.) and, ultimately, relations with international organizations (which can appear in the role of enemies, the allies, the neutral side and in the special role of the factors concerned with the preservation of world peace) were analyzed. The conclusion is that many issues relating to the effects of war or the state of war on relations with international organizations are not sufficiently addressed in the legal literature.