State Church Research Articles

A reflection on making ‘Religion’ in China: The Genealogy of Zongjiao through cultural exchange

The term Zongjiao [宗教] originally referring to the teachings of Buddhism and Chinese ancestral worship was not considered the equivalent for the English term ‘religion’ until the late 19th century when Japanese translated religion as shūkyō [宗教]. The later introduction of the concept of Zongjiao into China via Japan triggered a deep exploration of the differences between religion and Jiao among Chinese intellectuals like Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Peng Guangyu, representing Chinese scholars’ conceptualisation and reflections of Chinese traditional religious belief, practices and phenomena within the context of Western religious culture. Rather than a simple lexical selection, the translation of ‘religion’ essentially was a process of making the notion of ‘religion’ in China, which had provided valuable insight into the nature of Chinese Confucianism culture and was closely related to the understanding of the state–church relationship in China. With continuous cultural exchanges and integration, reflecting on this translation process will provide a more inclusive perspective on the complexity and diversity of religions and facilitate mutual learning.Contribution: This article briefly reviews the process of accepting Zongjiao [宗教] as the equivalent for the Western term ‘religion’ in China, in order to shed light on how such translation has influenced people’s understanding of religion and the inclusiveness contained in the study of religion.

Diecezja żmudzka w 1830 roku w świetle schematyzmu na 1831 rok (1). Schematyzm – edycja źródła

The presented text is an edition of the schematism of the Samogitian diocese prepared for 1831. The information gathered in it allows one to learn about the state of the Catholic Church, especially its administrative structure in Samogitia before the outbreak of the November Uprising. The collapse of the independence uprising directed against the Russian invaders initiated repressions that significantly limited the Church’s pastoral activities. The material describing the Samogitian diocese at the end of 1830 was divided into three articles. The first includes a critical edition of the schema of the Samogitian diocese published for 1831, along with a discussion of the formation of the rules for preparing Samogitian schemas for printing from the first found catalog of 1787 until the outbreak of the November Uprising. The second will present the administrative structure of the Samogitian diocese and the history of the temples then existing in the Samogitian diocese. The last – third – article will publish data on the diocesan clergy working in the Samogitian diocese on the eve of the outbreak of the uprising, as well as biographies of the priests mentioned in the schema.

The Separation of Church and State as an Imperial Project in the Philippines during the Early American Colonial Period

This paper examines the separation of church and state in the Philippines during the early American colonial period, contextualizing it within the process of American overseas expansion and considering it as one of the projects of imperial hegemony construction. After the Spanish–American War, the United States substituted Spain as the new colonial ruler of the Philippines, legitimizing its regime as the spread of ‘civilization’ to the Filipinos. On this basis, the Americans enacted laws guaranteeing religious freedom and introduced an American-style institution dealing with church–state relations. Beyond the legal and administrative initiatives, the new regime also constructed an official narrative of the transformation of political–religious relations in the Philippine that emphasized the absolute ‘difference’ between the American human rights principle, which guaranteed freedom of worship, and the Spanish theocracy, which was dedicated to the consolidation of privileges. By legislating the separation of church and state, buying up church properties, recognizing the equality of denominations, and constructing the official imperial narrative of church–state relations, the Americans hoped to ‘teach’ Filipinos that the ‘true’ belief was rooted in the inner convictions of individual Christians, not in the authority and coercion of the hierarchical church. By disciplining the construction of ‘difference’ under tutelary colonialism, the separation of church and state movement initiated by the American colonial government in the Philippines became an important source of imperial self-endowed legitimacy.

The Ecclesiastical Impact: Exploring the Role of Christian Church in Democracy Development in Nigeria

This research investigates the multifaceted role of Christian church in the development and consolidation of democracy in Nigeria. Through a comprehensive analysis of scholarly literature, empirical data, and case studies, the study aims to elucidate the various dimensions of the church's influence on democratic processes, institutions, and norms in the Nigerian context. Specifically, the research will examine how Christian churches contribute to promoting democratic values, civic education, moral leadership, peace-building, social welfare initiatives, and political engagement. By employing a mixed-methods approach, including qualitative interviews, surveys, and content analysis of church statements and activities, the study seeks to provide empirical evidence and theoretical insights into the mechanisms through which the church impacts democracy development in Nigeria. The findings of this research will have implications for understanding the complex dynamics of religion and politics in Nigeria and inform policy and practices aimed at strengthening democratic governance and pluralism in the country.

Viable Cooperation or Unscrupulous Service? Motivations for Albert Bereczky’s Activity in Church Governance

Albert Bereczky is one of the controversial figures in the 20th-century history of the Hungarian Reformed Church. Bereczky was a genuine and authentic leader of those who fought for the inner spiritual renewal of the church between the two world wars, a church organizer, a well-known and respected preacher, who saved many by risking his life during the deportation of Hungarian Jews to extermination camps, for which he was posthumously awarded the honorary title “Righteous Among the Nations” from the Yad Vashem. However, the communist state apparatus established after World War II found in him the person who, by placing him at the head of the Reformed Church, could bring about a radical reduction of the public and social role of the Church almost without any resistance. So, the question arises: how and why could Bereczky, whose Christian commitment was hard to question, become the servant of the dictatorial state apparatus with its atheistic ideology? Our study attempts to record the possible intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that might explain this dilemma, while also providing a general insight into Albert Bereczky’s life. Keywords: Bishop Albert Bereczky, Zoltán Tildy, Church–state relationship, communist persecution of Christians, collaboration

The Tradition of Russian Independent Theological Thought: A Complex Interplay between Believers, the Orthodox Church and the State in the Case of the Conflict in Ukraine

The construction of the Russian state has been closely linked with the development of the autocephalous Russian Orthodox Church. Russian identity is deeply rooted in Orthodoxy: Russian literature, music, architecture and philosophy all bear a strong religious mark. The birth of the Russian state is also tied to the concept of Moscow as the Third Rome. Over time, the head of the Russian state has been invested with this mission to preserve orthodoxy embodied in Russian statehood. The attempts of the state to politicise religious institutions or to use religious teachings for political gains are not a new phenomenon and are certainly apparent to Russian Orthodoxy, including in the context of the conflict in Ukraine. The disturbing absence of distance displayed by the Church authorities towards the use of force has isolated the Patriarch, but has also triggered discontent within the ranks of the clergy. Dissonant voices have spoken regardless of the pressure exerted to silence them. In the complex history of State—Church relations, the symphony between the temporal and spiritual powers has fluctuated from complete subjugation of the Church under the authority of the State to a more autonomous and independent Church. On the margins of this volatile relationship, Orthodox believers and movements have always emerged to challenge both. This article pays tribute to the long tradition of dissonant Russian Orthodox voices and attempts to demonstrate the continuity of this tradition in the context of the conflict in Ukraine.

STATE-CHURCH RELATIONS IN THE FIRST CZECHOSLOVAK REPUBLIC: SPECIFIC FEATURES OF LEGAL REGULATION

It is indicated that the relationship between the Church and the state went through various stages in its formation both in Ukraine and in the world as a whole. In addition, the state’s relations with religious organizations in various countries still have their own specifics. Models of these relationships are usually built depending on the political, religious, cultural and other traditions of each region. Therefore, today in Europe, despite the presence of a number of common trends, there is still no unity of approaches in building a system of state-church relations. It is quite obvious that in order to solve this problem, it is necessary to study the existing historical experience of Czechoslovakia. Regarding this, the confessional policy of the Czechoslovak state in the 20th century has a special value. Back in the interwar twentieth century (1918–1938), an attempt was made here to build such a model of the relationship between the state and religious organizations, which, on the one hand, provided for the secular nature of the state and the maximum limitation of the role of the church in public life, and on the other hand, the preservation of the main elements of the system of state -church relations that developed in Austria-Hungary. We can say that in a slightly modified form this model continued to exist in Czechoslovakia and in the second half of the 20th century. Even during the years of state atheism, the church here was not separated from the state. Thus, in the 20th century, Czechoslovakia accumulated rich experience in adapting traditional elements of the state church to new historical conditions. Based on the study of domestic and foreign sources, the article analyzes the legal regulation of state-church relations in the First Czechoslovak Republic. The study attempted to analyze the country’s relationship with the Vatican, which consisted primarily of the need to conclude a concordat agreement. The legal nature of Modus vivendi is analyzed. It was determined that the model of state-church relations in the first Czechoslovak Republic became an organic development of the model that existed in Austria-Hungary. It can be said that the process of equalizing the rights of all state-recognized denominations came to a certain logical conclusion in the first Czechoslovak Republic. At the same time, one of the fundamental principles of Austrian religious policy was preserved in the Czechoslovak Republic – the desire to limit the ties of local denominations with foreign administrative centers as much as possible.

The War in Ukraine: Challenges to Just War Doctrines in Eastern Orthodoxy

The sequence and escalation of Russian–Ukrainian political and military conflicts since 2014, culminating in Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, have reopened interest in and debates on just war theory and practice in general and specifically in historic and modern Eastern Orthodox cultures and Orthodox-majority states. These debates have significant repercussions in areas like church–state and church–military relations in these cultures; ecclesial involvement in these conflicts has varied from war-justification rhetoric (in the case of the Russian Orthodox Church) to reiterations of the inherited traditions of ecclesial pacifism/condemnation of all violence (the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, a number of Orthodox Churches, clerical and theological networks, etc.). The Russian ecclesial involvements in the justification of war/military necessity and formulation of just war narratives have triggered divisions and antagonisms in the Eastern Orthodoxy. The development and course of the ecclesial conflicts involving Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox churches and parishes (and other Orthodox ecclesiastic bodies) will show whether Orthodox religious actors may begin to play a more significant role in the articulation and application of newly emerging trends in areas like the theology of just peace, just peace-making and Christian realism, Orthodox social ethics and the dynamic praxis of just peace-making.

The Quebec Act (1774) and the Hanoverian Church–State Relationship

The Quebec Act (1774) and the Hanoverian Church–State Relationship

Peculiarities of state-church relations in the First Czechoslovak Republic

It is indicated that the relationship between the Church and the state went through various stages in its formation both in Ukraine and in the world as a whole. In addition, the state’s relations with religious organizations in various countries still have their own specifics. Models of these relationships are usually built depending on the political, religious, cultural and other traditions of each region. Therefore, today in Europe, despite the presence of a number of common trends, there is still no unity of approaches in building a system of state-church relations. It is quite obvious that in order to solve this problem, it is necessary to study the existing historical experience of Czechoslovakia. Regarding this, the confessional policy of the Czechoslovak state in the 20th century has a special value. Back in the interwar twentieth century (1918–1938), an attempt was made here to build such a model of the relationship between the state and religious organizations, which, on the one hand, provided for the secular nature of the state and the maximum limitation of the role of the church in public life, and on the other hand, the preservation of the main elements of the system of state-church relations that developed in Austria-Hungary. We can say that in a slightly modified form this model continued to exist in Czechoslovakia and in the second half of the 20th century. Even during the years of state atheism, the church here was not separated from the state. Thus, in the 20th century, Czechoslovakia accumulated rich experience in adapting traditional elements of the state church to new historical conditions. Based on the study of domestic and foreign sources, the article analyzes the legal regulation of state-church relations in the First Czechoslovak Republic. The study attempted to analyze the country’s relationship with the Vatican, which consisted primarily of the need to conclude a concordat agreement. The legal nature of Modus vivendi is analyzed. It was determined that the model of state-church relations in the first Czechoslovak Republic became an organic development of the model that existed in Austria-Hungary. It can be said that the process of equalizing the rights of all state-recognized denominations came to a certain logical conclusion in the first Czechoslovak Republic. At the same time, one of the fundamental principles of Austrian religious policy was preserved in the Czechoslovak Republic — the desire to limit the ties of local denominations with foreign administrative centers as much as possible.

A Severance of Union. Catholicism, Social Transformations, and State–Church Relations in Peru in the Late Twentieth Century

A Severance of Union. Catholicism, Social Transformations, and State–Church Relations in Peru in the Late Twentieth Century

In Search of Priestly Witness: A Barthian Intervention in the Chinese Church–State Relationship in a Neoliberal Age

Abstract This article suggests a theological proposal for envisioning the relationship between the church and state in the context of the Chinese neoliberal regime. It consists of three interrelated tasks. First, I argue that the rise of a neoliberal state has shaped the Chinese political landscape over the past four decades and constrained the collective responses of the Chinese house churches in their cooperative and negotiating strategies. Then, I examine two recent theological announcements by the church leaders and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in addressing the principles of church–state relations. This critical analysis is followed by a rediscovery of Barth’s theological politics of priestly witness, which has laid the Christological foundation for the integrity of faith communities and shed light on their primary concerns and actions towards the Chinese neoliberal state. In this way, I seek to contribute to the ongoing discussion of Chinese political theology by offering a nascent analysis of the political system encountered by the house churches and reclaiming Barth’s theological legacy for these churches in public witness.

Book Review: Beyond Establishment: Resetting Church–State Relations in England by Jonathan Chaplin

Book Review: <i>Beyond Establishment: Resetting Church–State Relations in England</i> by Jonathan Chaplin

Leading the church through institutional change

While institutional changes in the religious landscape of Norwegian society have received much scholarly interest in recent decades, less attention has been paid to the agency provided by actors within the Church of Norway. Among the many ecclesial actors, the role of Director General of the National Council of the Church of Norway has emerged as one of the more important in the process of disestablishing the Church of Norway as a state church. In asking how the Directors General of the Church of Norway performed their institutional work during the disestablishment of the Church of Norway, the article reveals the manner in which three sequential Directors General provided institutional leadership while navigating the church through its institutional change. Using theoretical perspectives on institutional work and leadership, the article analyzes the work undertaken by these three Directors General in relation to state–church matters between 1998 and 2021. By considering previous studies showing how institutional leadership engages in securing internal cohesion and external support while overcoming external opposition, the article shows how each of these elements played a pivotal role in directing the agency of the Directors General at a specific point in the process.

“What then art thou?”: Demogorgon, Son of God and Savior of the World in Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound

ABSTRACT At the climactic fall of Jupiter in Prometheus Unbound, the deposed tyrant god asks his destroyer—the mysterious Demogorgon—“What then art thou?” This article seeks an answer to that question by uncovering the linguistic and theological contexts of Demogorgon. Specifically, I position Prometheus Unbound among historical arguments on Christology in the early nineteenth century, in which traditional arguments for the divinity of Christ were bolstered by Christian apologetic readings of classical myth. However, against these apologetic syncretists, novel reconsiderations of classical mythology and biblical hermeneutics in the period coincided with challenges to Christ’s divinity and Trinitarian theology. Amid the resulting Christological instability, Prometheus Unbound synchronizes Christian religious belief with pagan mythical figures, most notably recasting Demogorgon—the destroyer of gods—as Christ Himself. By rewriting the symbol of Christ, Shelley is free to reimagine Christian eschatology in terms that transvaluate the teachings of the English state church. This article sheds light on the religious implications of Prometheus Unbound’s enigmatic figure Demogorgon, and also contributes to critical conversations on Shelley and Christianity, and the development of Christian doctrine in the early nineteenth century.

Zwingli and the Anabaptists: How Friends Became Enemies

In Zurich, two Reformation churches emerged within a few years, both of which can be traced back to Huldrych Zwingli and his associates: the Reformed Church and a branch of Anabaptism, from which the Amish and Mennonite churches emerged. While Zwingli advocated a Reformed state church, the Anabaptists pleaded for the founding of a free church that would put into practice what was recognized as right from the New Testament, regardless of political sensitivities. The latter was so contrary to the self-image of the Zurich state that it led to serious conflicts with Zwingli and the authorities.

Bridging organizational identity work and institutional work: Preserving the identity of the Church of Norway through institutional change

Applying institutional theory to organizational identity (OI) work, this article analyzes how the OI of the Church of Norway was reformulated when it was disestablished as a state church. Building on social constructionist perspectives and their implications for agency, drawing on a case study, this article deepens the link between institutional work and OI research by promoting institutional work as an analytical tool to understand OI work. Deviating from current trends in OI research, which emphasize the discursive bottom-up work of organizational members, this work focuses on the pivotal role of regulative elements in a highly institutionalized organization and questions the division between a social actor and the social constructionist perspective of OI. It calls for more empirical research on OI work, which encompasses broader institutional aspects.

Carnaps fråga och teologins gåta

In this text, I develop my earlier argument on the possibility of a non-confessional theological inquiry, and hence an intellectual practice devoted to the classical theological problems that begin with reason rather than faith, at secular universities in Sweden, a country with no state church and many different religions and denominations. I answer the criticism against this tentative proposal by returning to Rudolf Carnap's discussion of Friedrich Gogarten's theological tractate Die religiöse Entscheidung (1921). The logical positivist was amazed that Gogarten was so boldly staking out a new area of reality, and he wanted to know how he could see what Gogarten saw. "Gogarten can rightly say that I am blind", Carnap wrote, and "my non-seeing would not be an objection for him, but would only show that I am not (yet) one of the elect". But Carnap continued by stating that this would lead to a relativistic outcome that he could not assent to due to his "belief in reason" (Vernunftglaube). Accepting Carnap's criticism of relativism but deconstructing the difference between what he called the question (die Frage) and the puzzle or mystery (das Rätsel), I show how theological questions still emerge in the sciences and that there is a link between questions and mysteries. Insisting that Carnap's own belief in reason is a good indication of the relation between die Frage and das Rätsel, and hence between science and what the logical positivist would describe as metaphysics, I argue that systematic theology not only has a prominent and vital role at a secular university, as the science that investigates shapes and discusses theological discourses wherever they appear. It also asks (and might even give tentative answers to) the problematic question of the truth of these discourses, since I show that Carnap's, ultimately Diltheyan, attempt to differentiate understanding (verstehen) from explanation (erklären), cannot hold. Theology is, in this sense, not only an attempt to describe and explain how different religions think. It is also a critical and philosophical discussion of these thought systems' meaning and truth content. Theology thereby reminds the university of the interconnection between science and mystery, truth and meaning.

Religion and mental health in young adulthood: a register-based study on differences by religious affiliation in sickness absence due to mental disorders in Finland

BackgroundReligiosity and spirituality are known to be positively correlated with health. This is the first study to analyse the interrelation between religious denomination and sickness absence due to mental disorders...

Religion, Pluralism, and the Australian State after Same-Sex Marriage

Abstract Since the passing of same-sex marriage legislation in 2017, religious freedom has become a prominent feature of Australian public debate. Overwhelmingly, such debates are conducted within a human rights framework where principles such as individual autonomy and protection from discrimination are prioritized over the communal and associational elements of religious life. This in turn tends to augment the power of the state vis-à-vis religious communities and institutions. In important respects, the dominance of human rights represents a new manifestation of the kind of “liberal-statism”—a public philosophy of liberal individualism that accepts the primacy of the state in the management of cultural and religious diversity—that has been a central feature of Australian religion–state relations over time. After some historical discussion of Australian church–state practice, this article argues for a reconsideration of a largely overlooked approach deriving from the English pluralists of the early twentieth century, which promoted greater degrees of group autonomy in relation to a rapidly growing state. It is argued that this tradition has greater potential in responding to the religious diversity of our time than does the current human rights approach with its tendency to reinforce an individualistic or privatized conception of religion, diminish associational life, and thereby reinforce state power.