Start Box Research Articles

Interactive preference analysis: A reinforcement learning framework

Automated investment managers are increasingly popular in personal wealth management due to their cost effectiveness, objectivity, and accessibility. However, it still suffers from several dilemmas, e.g., cold start, over-specialization, and black boxes. To solve these issues, we develop an online reinforcement learning framework based on the multi-armed bandit algorithm to offer personalized investment advice. We provide a comprehensive theoretical procedure for developing this framework. This framework not only enables us to capture the evolving preferences of investors effectively but also has a strong explainability power to provide more implications regarding why one financial product is preferred. We further evaluate our basic model through a large-scale, real-world data set from a leading wealth management platform. The results show a stronger effectiveness of the proposed framework compared to other well-recognized benchmark models. Furthermore, we extend our basic model to address the potential agency problem between the robo-advisor and the investors. Another extension is also provided through an optimization scheme to account for the investors’ demands for diversification in multiple aspects.

The Neurochemical Anatomy of Runway Acquisition and Extinction

Abstract: A review is presented as to the neurochemical basis of the straight runway task, usually consisting of an acquisition phase followed by an extinction phase. During the acquisition of the appetitive runway task, running speeds from the start box to the goal box progressively increase over trials and then decrease when the reward is withheld. Runway extinction is susceptible to lesions of the limbic system, including the medial frontal cortex, the hippocampus, the septum, the amygdala, and the dorsomedial thalamus. When specific neurotransmitter systems are examined, extinction was delayed when noradrenaline transmission was impeded, perhaps involving noradrenergic projections to the hippocampus and neocortex. Extinction was likewise delayed after either facilitation or blocking of dopamine transmission, a result implicating an inverted U-shaped function caused by dopamine’s role in behavioral activation or reward processes. Extinction was also delayed by indirect GABAA receptor agonists injected during acquisition, explained by druginduced disinhibitory tendencies. This simple paradigm may provide information about the effects of a physiological manipulation on both cognition and emotion.

Maze design: size and number of choices impact fish performance in cognitive assays.

Although studies on fish cognition are increasing, consideration of how methodological details influence the ability to detect and measure performance is lagging. Here, in two separate experiments the authors compared latency to leave the start position, latency to make a decision, levels of participation and success rates (whether fish entered the rewarded chamber as first choice) across different physical designs. Experiments compared fish performance across (a) two sizes of T-mazes, large and standard, and a plus-maze, and (b) open choice arenas with either two or four doors. Fish in T-mazes with longer arms took longer to leave the start chamber and were less likely to participate in a trial than fish in T-mazes with shorter arms. The number of options, or complexity, in a maze significantly impacted success but did not necessarily impact behavioural measures, and did not impact the number of fish that reached a chamber. Fish in the plus-maze had similar latencies to leave the start box and time to reach any chamber as fish in the same-sized T-maze but exhibited lower overall success. Similarly, in an open choice arena, increasing the number of options - doors to potential reward chambers - resulted in lower probability of success. There was an influence of reward position in the choice arena, with rewarded chambers closest to the sides of the arena resulting in lower latencies to enter and higher probability of decision success. Together the results allow the authors to offer practical suggestions towards optimal maze design for studies of fish cognition.

DEVELOPMENT OF MOBILE APPLICATION FOR SALARY CALCULATION

This article analyzes existing mobile applications for calculation of wages; also we considered main stages of creation mobile applications. Calculation method for determining of the amount of wages in Kyrgyz Republic has been determined. Android operating system, Java programming language and Android Studio integrated development environment are briefly considered in it. Start box for entering applications has been developed and input activities’ process and employee data output determine salary are shown.

Morinda citrifolia Linn. fruit extract mitigates heroin seeking behavior in mice

Methanolic extract of Morinda citrifolia unripe fruit (MMC) was tested against heroin addiction using a mouse modified runway model of drug‑seeking. Habituation sessions were carried out for 10 min/d for 3 days. On day 0, the total run time of each mouse was noted (the start box to goal box) during the preconditioning test. This was followed by the conditioning session (30 min), in which the animals were conditioned with escalating doses of heroin hydrochloride (5, 10, 20, 40 and 40 mg/kg) for 5 days upon entry into the goal box. On day 6, the run time of each mouse, from start to goal box, was recorded during the post conditioning test. Extinction trials were performed for the next 5 days, in which no drug/saline was injected upon goal box entry. On day 13, a priming dose of heroin (8 mg/kg) was given to reinstate drug seeking in the mice. MMC given as oral doses (1, 3 and 5 g/kg) dose‑dependently prolonged the run time to reach the goal box, indicating MMC attenuated heroin reinforcement. Moreover, MMC (5 g/kg) was found to reverse the heroin‑seeking on extinction trial 1 and 2. MMC was also found to reverse heroin‑induced reinstatement in mice. This study demonstrates that MMC attenuated heroin seeking at different phases of drug self‑administration in a mouse modified runway model.

Greyhound Racing Track Lure Systems—Acoustical Measurements within and Adjacent to the Starting Boxes

This study investigates and compares the acoustic signatures of a traditional wire-cable-pulled lure system and two alternative battery-operated lure systems jointly developed by Covey Associates Pty. Ltd. and Steriline Pty. Ltd. to eliminate the hazardous steel-wire cable and make the sport of greyhound racing safer for greyhounds, participants and spectators. The acoustical measurements of these three lure systems were conducted at the Murray Bridge greyhound racing track. The lure sounds were measured by the high-frequency Brüel & Kjær (B&K) Type 4191 microphones for the 395 m and 455 m starts at two positions: within the starting box and on the track adjacent to the starting boxes. The measurements capture the sounds that the greyhounds hear before and after the opening of the starting box gate. The frequency-domain analysis and sound quality analysis were conducted to compare the lure sounds. It was found when the battery-lure was installed with all nylon rollers, it presented less sound energy and lower frequency than the traditional wire-cable-pulled lure. When two of the nylon rollers were replaced with steel rollers, the battery-operated lure emitted a louder and higher frequency sound than the traditional wire-cable-pulled lure. The different acoustic characteristics of these lure systems suggest future research is warranted on the reaction of greyhounds to different lure sounds, particularly their excitement level within the starting box as the lure approaches. This initial research also suggests some greyhounds may not clearly hear the battery-operated lure with all nylon rollers approaching the starting boxes and the timing of these greyhounds to jump may be delayed, particularly during high wind conditions.

Dogs are more pessimistic if their owners use two or more aversive training methods

Domestic dogs are trained using a range of different methods, broadly categorised as reward based (positive reinforcement/negative punishment) and aversive based (positive punishment/negative reinforcement). Previous research has suggested associations between use of positive punishment-based techniques and undesired behaviours, but there is little research investigating the relative welfare consequences of these different approaches. This study used a judgement bias task to compare the underlying mood state of dogs whose owners reported using two or more positive punishment/negative reinforcement based techniques, with those trained using only positive reinforcement/negative punishment in a matched pair study design. Dogs were trained to discriminate between rewarded and unrewarded locations equidistant from a start box, and mean latencies recorded. Their subsequent latency to intermediate ‘ambiguous’ locations was recorded as an indication of whether these were perceived as likely to contain food or not. Dogs trained using aversive methods were slower to all ambiguous locations. This difference was significant for latency to the middle (Wilcoxon Z = − 2.380, P = 0.017), and near positive (Wilcoxon Z = − 2.447, P = 0.014) locations, suggesting that dogs trained using coercive methods may have a more negative mood state, and hence that there are welfare implications of training dogs using such methods.

Comparative behaviour of local and exotic chickens in tests of fearfulness, anxiety and cognition

Behaviour affects performance and productivity of poultry birds especially chickens, some behavioural traits are advantageous in a particular production system and may be of disadvantage in another production system. The present study compared behavioural of Nigeria Local Chicken, NLC (two separate samples of 11 Yoruba Ecotype) and its Exotic counterparts (11 Broilers and 11 Pullets) by use of the Open Field (OFT), T-Maze, Forced Approach, and Voluntary Approach Tests (FAT and VAT respectively) during two phases of Growth (0-4 Weeks, and 4-8 weeks age respectively). The former group (NLC) is better adapted to extensive management in the Nigerian Guinea savannah than the latter Results showed that Yoruba NLC issued a significantly (p<0.05) higher number of distress calls than the Exotic genotypes in the OFT at age 7 and 48 days, and the NLC issued significantly more calls at 7 days age. Broilers exhibited significantly lower OFT Latency at 7 and 48 days, and Broilers traversed fewer squares and spent less time ambulating than other genotypes at 48 days age. Ina T-maze, Broilers showed significantly (p<0.05) lower exploratory behaviour than other groups (higher latency to leave the start box). In the FAT, NLC showed lower Latency to flight (p<0.05) than the Exotic genotypes. Ethological test results indicate differences in the behavioural characters exhibited by Yoruba NLC and Exotic Chickens and such differences could embody the basis of anecdotal differences in the rates of survival under extensive management conditions, and may be subjected to quantitative genetic selection in the ongoing effort to produce improved chickens that incorporate a combination of desirable traits from both Local and Exotic chickens.

A Pilot Study of Methods for Evaluating the Effects of Arousal and Emotional Valence on Performance of Racing Greyhounds.

Simple SummaryRacing greyhounds in Australia may have their racing careers ended early if they do not reliably chase the lure. It is not known why greyhounds bred specifically to chase may fail to do so, but possible reasons may be they are overly distressed by the race meet environment, or they get frustrated that they are not able to capture the lure. The current study sought ways to investigate these possibilities by exploring potential indicators of arousal and frustration in greyhounds at race meets across three different racetracks in New South Wales (NSW). Eye temperature offers a non-invasive, objective way to assess arousal. Behaviour thought to indicate arousal was also recorded. Finally, behaviour was recorded at the end of races to seek indications of frustration. Greyhounds that were older and had higher eye temperatures after the race performed worse in their races. Eye temperature before races was affected by the racetrack at which the race meet was held as well as the race number, suggesting some tracks may be more stressful for greyhounds than others, and that kennelling is probably a source of ongoing distress at race meets. Frustration-related behaviours were common at two of the tracks but less common at the third, where toys were available in the catch pen.The racing greyhound industry in Australia has come under scrutiny in recent years due to animal welfare concerns, including wastage where physically sound greyhounds fail to enter or are removed from the racing industry because of poor performance. The reasons why some greyhounds perform poorly in racing are not well understood, but may include insufficient reinforcement for racing or negative affective states in response to the race meet environment. The current study investigated ways to measure affective states of greyhounds (n = 525) at race meets across three racetracks and the factors influencing performance by collecting behavioural and demographic data, and infrared thermographic images of greyhounds’ eyes at race meets. Increasing Eye Temp After had a negative association with performance (n = 290, Effect = −0.173, s.e. = 0.074, p-value = 0.027), as did increasing age (n = 290, Effect = −0.395, s.e. = 0.136, p-value = 0.004). The start box number also had a significant association, with boxes 4, 5 and 7 having an inverse relationship with performance. There was a significant effect of racetrack on mean eye temperatures before and after the race (n = 442, Effect = 1.910, s.e. = 0.274, p-value < 0.001; Effect = 1.595, s.e. = 0.1221, p-value < 0.001 for Gosford and Wentworth respectively), suggesting that some tracks may be inherently more stressful for greyhounds than others. Mean eye temperature before the race increased as the race meet progressed (n = 442, Effect = 0.103, s.e. = 0.002, p-value < 0.001). Behaviours that may indicate frustration in the catching pen were extremely common at two of the tracks but much less common at the third, where toys attached to bungees were used to draw greyhounds into the catching pen.

Rearing environment affects spatial learning in juvenile Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

We tested the prediction that a complex physical rearing environment would enhance short-term spatial memory as assessed by learning ability in a spatial navigation task in juvenile Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. We reared fish in two low-density treatments, where fish were either in bare fiberglass tanks (bare) or in tanks with physical structure (complex). We also tested conventionally reared high-density hatchery fish to compare with these other experimental treatments. Our reason for including this third hatchery treatment is that the two low-density treatments, aside from the manipulation of structure, followed a rearing programme that is designed to produce fish with more wild-like characteristics. We tested individually marked fish for seven consecutive days and recorded movement and time to exit a testing maze. Stimulus conspecific fish outside the exit of the maze provided positive reinforcement for test fish. Fish from the bare treatment were less likely to exit the start box compared with fish in the complex and hatchery treatments. However, fish in the hatchery treatment were significantly more likely to exit the maze on their own compared with both the bare and complex treatments. Hatchery fish effectively learned the task as shown by a decrease in the number of mistakes over time, but the number of mistakes was significantly greater on the first day of trials. Increasing habitat complexity with structure may not necessarily promote spatial learning ability, but differences between hatchery and experimental treatments in rearing density and motivation to be near conspecifics likely led to observed behavioural differences.

Age and sex differences in motivation and spatial working memory in 3xTg-AD mice in the Hebb–Williams maze

The 3xTg-AD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has both amyloid beta plaque and tau tangle pathology. However, the results of behavioural testing with these mice have been inconsistent due to age- and sex-related differences, as well as differences in the difficulty of the tests used to measure cognitive function. In order to better understand the sex- and age-related spatial working memory deficits in the 3xTg-AD mice compared to their B6129S/F2 wildtype controls, we tested 4 and 7-month-old males and females and 13-month-old females in the Hebb–Williams maze. In the acquisition phase, the 3xTg-AD mice performed better than the WT controls, but the females of both genotypes showed motivational deficits; often returning to the start box and not eating the food reward, thus taking longer than males to meet the criterion for acquisition. The 3xTg-AD mice showed more working memory deficits than WT mice during the test phase, and the difference increased as the problems increased in difficulty. The results of this study indicate that female 3xTg-AD mice may have motivational deficits in tests using food reward and that the cognitive deficits of the 3xTg-AD mice are not apparent when the tests are too easy; the more difficult the task, the more deficits are shown in the 3xTg-AD mice compared to WT controls. Thus, the inconsistency in previous results may result from differences in motivation and in test difficulty and these must be considered when evaluating cognitive deficits in the 3xTg-AD mice.

Adolescent Exploratory Strategies and Behavioral Types in the Multivariate Concentric Square FieldTM Test.

Adolescence is an important developmental phase with extensive changes in behavior due to remodeling of the brain and hormonal systems. Validation of animal behavioral tests in this age group is therefore of importance as differences to adult behavior are often not clarified. The aim of the present study was to investigate adolescent behavior in the multivariate concentric square fieldTM (MCSF) test and its relationship to other common behavioral tests as well as to a literature dataset of adult animals. Sixty adolescent male Wistar rats were tested in the MCSF and one of four reference tests; the elevated plus maze, the open field with or without start box, or the social play behavior test. Additionally, 12 animals were tested twice in the MCSF. When analyzing the first encounter with the MCSF test, a distinct grouping of the individuals into three behavioral types was observed. Approximately 20% of the animals had high levels of activity and an additional 20% had high levels of shelter seeking-behavior, these groups composed the outlying behavioral types named Explorers and Shelter seekers, respectively, which were distinct from the Main type of animals. When tested in the MCSF for a second time, the adolescent animals showed a recollection of the arena as they changed their behavior in relation to the first encounter. When comparing the MCSF performance to the reference tests, a relationship was found between the MCSF and the other behavioral test entailing forced exploration, while no relationship was found between the MCSF and social play. The adolescent behavioral profile was characterized by decreased risk assessment and a different activity profile than adults. In conclusion, the MCSF test is useful for profiling adolescent rats but the behavioral interpretation differs from that of adults due to differences in behavioral manifestation during adolescence and the presence of natural subgroups. Adolescent exploration shows a relationship across tests, but the MCSF gives more information than any of the other behavioral tests based on forced exploration. Further studies into the neurobiology behind the behavioral types and how different manipulations affect the distribution into the behavioral types are of interest.

Impaired Spatial Reorientation in the 3xTg-AD Mouse Model of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease

In early Alzheimer’s disease (AD) spatial navigation is impaired; however, the precise cause of this impairment is unclear. Recent evidence suggests that getting lost is one of the first impairments to emerge in AD. It is possible that getting lost represents a failure to use distal cues to get oriented in space. Therefore, we set out to look for impaired use of distal cues for spatial orientation in a mouse model of amyloidosis (3xTg-AD). To do this, we trained mice to shuttle to the end of a track and back to an enclosed start box to receive a water reward. Then, mice were trained to stop in an unmarked reward zone to receive a brain stimulation reward. The time required to remain in the zone for a reward was increased across training, and the track was positioned in a random start location for each trial. We found that 6-month female, but not 3-month female, 6-month male, or 12-month male, 3xTg-AD mice were impaired. 6-month male and female mice had only intracellular pathology and male mice had less pathology, particularly in the dorsal hippocampus. Thus, AD may cause spatial disorientation as a result of impaired use of landmarks.

Drinks Like a Fish: The Effects of Ethanol on Associative Learning in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

The present study sought to elucidate whether neural maturation has a mitigating effect on ethanol and its concomitant effects on memory. Three-month old zebrafish were acclimated to a plus maze using a habituation procedure. After acclimatization to the maze, associations between the red cue cards and reward were formed via a shaping procedure. Following the final shaping day, food was removed from the maze and red cues were only present in one arm. The time it took for the fish to go from the start box to the cued arm was then measured. Afterwards, fish were exposed to 0.00, 0.25, or 0.75% ethanol (v/v) for 72 hours. Post-exposure memory performance was tested at 0.5-day, 5-day, and 14-day endpoints. Three primary findings were noted. First, no significant difference in run time was found within the control group at any time point, suggesting an adept associative memory system in zebrafish. Second, no significant difference in run time was found when comparing 0.25 and 0.75% (v/v) ethanol groups. Therefore, these treatments were pooled for further analyses. Third, the most significant impairment was observed at the 0.5-day post exposure time point indicating that ethanol has a significant impact on recently learned associations. Finally, no significant difference in run time was observed within the pooled treatment group on subsequent time points. This capacity for recovery was a key difference from what was observed in previous studies.

Early- and Late-Light Embryonic Stimulation Modulates Similarly Chicks’ Ability to Filter out Distractors

Chicks (Gallus gallus) learned to run from a starting box to a target located at the end of a runway. At test, colourful and bright distractors were placed just outside the starting box. Dark incubated chicks (maintained in darkness from fertilization to hatching) stopped significantly more often, assessing more the left-side distractor than chicks hatched after late (for 42 h during the last three days before hatching) or early (for 42 h after fertilization) exposure to light. The results show that early embryonic light stimulation can modulate this particular behavioural lateralization comparably to the late application of it, though via a different route.

Effects of acute caffeine on anxiety-related behavior in rats chronically exposed to the drug, with some evidence of possible withdrawal-reversal

For 20days male and female PVG/c hooded rats were provided with caffeinated (approximately 50mg/kg/day) or unadulterated drinking water, and then their anxiety-related behavior was observed in an open field and elevated plus maze. Their choices of a brightness change were also observed in a Y maze to assess any caffeine effects on spatial memory. 24h later, all rats were tested again following an intraperitoneal injection of 50mg/kg acute caffeine, or vehicle. Earlier chronic caffeine decreased ambulation, walking, rearing, center occupancy and increased immobility in the open field thereby suggesting increased anxiety. However, occupancy of the plus-maze open arms and the Y-maze novel arm were increased by caffeine for male rats, but decreased for females probably because of sex differences in control levels of the response rather than to drug effects on anxiety and memory respectively. Following caffeine withdrawal, acute caffeine had the opposite effect to chronic treatment namely, increased open-field ambulation, walking, center occupancy and decreased immobility and defecation for caffeine-naïve rats that were suggestive of decreased anxiety. Similar but more consistent effects (plus decreased emergence latencies from a darkened start box into the open field) also typified the caffeine-experienced rats which in this case may have been accentuated by caffeine withdrawal-reversal. There was no evidence of either chronic or acute caffeine affecting spatial memory measured in the Y maze. There were also examples of lower overall activity and higher anxiety in male rats, than in females, and some sex-dependent caffeine effects.

Place cells on a maze encode routes rather than destinations.

Hippocampal place cells fire at different rates when a rodent runs through a given location on its way to different destinations. However, it is unclear whether such firing represents the animal's intended destination or the execution of a specific trajectory. To distinguish between these possibilities, Lister Hooded rats (n = 8) were trained to navigate from a start box to three goal locations via four partially overlapping routes. Two of these led to the same goal location. Of the cells that fired on these two routes, 95.8% showed route-dependent firing (firing on only one route), whereas only two cells (4.2%) showed goal-dependent firing (firing similarly on both routes). In addition, route-dependent place cells over-represented the less discriminable routes, and place cells in general over-represented the start location. These results indicate that place cell firing on overlapping routes reflects the animal's route, not its goals, and that this firing may aid spatial discrimination.

The role of anxiety in vulnerability for self-injurious behaviour: studies in a rodent model

Self-injurious behaviour (SIB) is a debilitating characteristic that is highly prevalent in autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Pathological anxiety is also common, and there are reports of comorbid anxiety and self-injury in some children. We have investigated potential interactions between anxiety and self-injury, using a rat model of pemoline-induced self-biting. In one experiment, rats were pre-screened for trait anxiety by measuring expression of anxiety-related behaviour on the elevated plus maze and open field emergence test. The rats were then treated with pemoline once daily for ten days, and vulnerability for pemoline-induced self-injury was evaluated. This revealed modest correlations between innate levels of anxiety-related behaviour in the open field test (time in the start box, and latency to enter the open field), and vulnerability for pemoline-induced self-biting (total duration of self-injurious oral contact, and total size of tissue injury). Measures in the elevated plus maze were not significantly correlated with vulnerability for pemoline-induced self-injury. In a second experiment, rats were treated with the beta-carboline FG 7142 twice daily, during 5days of treatment with pemoline. The rats that were treated with this anxiogenic drug exhibited greater duration of self-injurious oral contact, and larger injuries than vehicle-treated controls did. Overall, these results suggest that anxiety may contribute to the etiology and/or expression of self-injurious behaviour, and indicate that further research is warranted.

Testing post-weaning food motivation in low and normal birth weight pigs in a runway and operant conditioning task

Low birth weight (LBW) pigs face more welfare challenges than their normal birth weight (NBW) siblings. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of cognitive and learning abilities in these pigs may help to improve their welfare. Early competition in life over resources, combined with the higher need for nutrient intake, make it likely that LBW pigs have a higher motivation for food than NBW pigs. This study aimed to compare the motivation to obtain food rewards between LBW and NBW pigs, using variable numbers of rewards in two separate tasks; a runway and an operant conditioning task (the nose wheel task). Ten pairs of littermates were used. From each litter, one low birth weight piglet (mean birth weight±SEM: 854±33g) and one normal birth weight piglet (1332±53g) was selected. Pigs were tested in the runway task at 12 weeks of age and the operant nose wheel task at 19 weeks of age. Both tasks consisted of a baseline phase (two rewards), a high reward phase (eight rewards) and an extinction phase (no rewards). Statistical analyses using mixed models showed that NBW animals left the start box faster than LBW animals in the high reward phase in the runway task. However, their run time in this phase was not shorter and no other birth weight effects were found in any other phase or measure in this task nor in the nose wheel task. All animals decreased their run time in the runway task between the baseline phase and high reward phase, and increased their run time in the extinction phase (p<0.05). Likewise, in the nose wheel task, all animals reached a higher number of total rewards gained and spent a lower percentage of time away from the feeder in the high reward phase compared to the baseline phase (p<0.05). Additionally, they showed a decrease in motivation during the extinction phase (p<0.05). Our results indicate that there is no difference in motivation to obtain food rewards between LBW and NBW pigs. However, both the results of the runway and the nose wheel task show a phase effect between the baseline, high reward and the extinction phase. This is in accordance with the underlying theory that animals have a higher motivation for resources that are more desired. Therefore, we show that both tasks are sensitive enough to measure motivation for food rewards in pigs, and are consequently useful to study factors influencing pig motivation.

Design of Emergence Test Arenas Can Affect the Results of Boldness Assays

AbstractIn this study, we investigate whether and how arena design of emergence tests (a commonly used boldness assay where the latency to emerge from a start box is measured) can affect the behaviour of the subject animals. We used two populations of wild brown trout fry, captured on their hatching grounds, and measured emergence latency in arenas with two different sizes of start‐box gates and two different environments into which the fish emerges from the start box (barren and complex), in a factorial design. We found that arena design affected the behaviour of the fish, but only in one of the populations. In the affected population, a large start‐box gate in combination with a barren environment reduced emergence latency. Furthermore, the time from leaving the box until entering another compartment on the opposite side of the arena was shorter in a barren environment as compared to a more complex environment. We also found that smaller brown trout fry generally showed lower tendency for emerging from the start box at all. The results of this study suggest that direct comparisons among results from experiments using different arena designs may be problematic and highlight the importance of reporting details of arena design in publications.