Starchy Grains Research Articles

Protected fats in feeding of highly productive cows

Highly productive animals experience energy deficiency at the beginning of lactation up to 30 % of their energy needs, since cows spend more energy on milk production than they intake with feed. Therefore, to maintain a high level of productivity and minimize live weight loss of cows, it is necessary to increase the energy supply of rations. For these purposes, along with the use of high-quality feed and a decrease in the proportion of starchy grain concentrates in the ration structure, various types of fats are used in feeding of cows, since their energy value is more than 2 times higher than proteins and carbohydrates. The purpose of the research was to study the eff ectiveness of using protected vegetable fats in feeding of highly productive lactating cows. Comprehensive studies were carried out to investigate the effectiveness of using new protected vegetable fats: hydrogenated (Ultra Feed F) and fractionated (Extra Feed F) in feeding of highly productive lactating cows and an assessment of the effectiveness of their use was given. It was recommended as a result of the research that in order to ensure milk productivity of cows at a level of more than 7000 kg of milk (7000–9000 kg), livestock farms should ensure the concentration of metabolic energy in the dry matter of the ration of at least 10.7 MJ/kg, with possible compensation for the deficit in the level of metabolic energy up to 11.0 MJ/kg with protected vegetable fats of domestic production (fractionated Extra Feed F and hydrogenated Ultra Feed F) in the amount of 300 g/head/day during the period of 21–120 days of lactation.

Optimisation of dry heat treatment conditions for modification of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) starch

Faba bean is a protein-rich starchy grain that is underutilised in the UK. The starch of faba bean can be modified using environmentally friendly methods like dry heat treatment (DHT) to enhance functional and its physicochemical properties. This study investigated the impact of dry heat temperature and time on the structure, functional and physicochemical properties of faba bean starch (FBS) using a two-factor central composite rotatable design. Factors (DHT temperature:100–150 °C and DHT time:0.5–5 h) with their respective α mid-point values led to 13 experimental runs. Selected pasting and functional properties were measured as response variables. Corn starch was included as a reference and compared with the FBS modified using the optimized conditions. DHT increased peak (approx. 2205–2267 cP), final (approx. 3525–3642 cP) and setback (approx. 1887–1993 cP) viscosities but decreased the amylose content of FBS. Colour, as measured by lightness value, morphology and crystalline type were not altered but the starches showed a loss of order and an increase in crystallinity after DHT. FBS appeared resilient to DHT but showed higher swelling power and pasting properties compared to the corn starch control. The optimum DHT conditions to produce starch with desirable properties are a temperature of 100 °C for 0.1716 h, with a desirability factor of 66 %.

AMELIORATION DE LA PRODUCTION DU MAIS (ZEA MAYS L.) EN COTE DIVOIRE PAR LUTILISATION DEXTRAITS DE PLANTES CONTRE LES CHAMPIGNONS PATHOGENES EN MILIEU NATUREL

Corn is the second largest food crop in Cote dIvoire by tonnage after rice with an annual production of around 600,000 tonnes (FAO, 2014). This commodity is widely cultivated for its starchy grains. It is also used as a fodder plant in certain localities. However, its cultivated plant is faced with the problem of fungal diseases observed in recent years in the large growing areas of the country. This study was carried out to identify pathogenic fungal genera of corn leaves and control these fungi with aqueous extracts of plant leaves. Thus, corn leaves in culture were inoculated with sporal concentrations of Curvularia sp., Fusarium sp., and Helmintosporium sp. The pathogenicity test showed that the fungus Helmintosporium sp was the most pathogenic followed by the genus Curvularium. This study also showed that plant extracts inhibit the development of the three fungal genera studied and improve plant growth and corn production in the field. Azadirachta indica and Ricinus communis extracts significantly reduced foliar symptoms and increased corn production. As for the Nicotiana Tabacum reduced the symptoms but did not promote a significant increase in corn production.

On the Role of Starchy Grains in Ice Nucleation Processes.

Little is known about the role of starchy food on climate change processes like ice nucleation. Here, we investigate the ice nucleation efficiency (INE) of eight different starchy food materials, namely, corn (CO), potato (PO), barley (BA), brown rice (BR), white rice (WR), oats (OA), wheat (WH), and sweet potato (SP), in immersion freezing mode under mixed-phase cloud conditions. Notably, among all these food materials, PO and BA exhibit the highest ice nucleation efficiency with ice nucleation temperatures as high as -4.3 °C (T50 ∼ -7.0 ± 0.5 °C) and -6.5 °C (T50 ∼ -7.2 ± 0.2 °C), respectively. We also explore the effect of environmentally relevant physicochemical conditions on ice nucleation efficiency, including different pH, temperature, UV/O3/NOx exposure, and various cocontaminants. The change in shape, size, surface properties, hydrophobicity, and crystallinity of materials accounted for the altered INE. The increase in shape, size, and hydrophobicity of the sample generally reduces the INE, whereas an increase in crystallinity enhances the INE of the sample under our experimental conditions. The results suggest that environmentally relevant concentrations slightly alter INE, indicating their role as catalysts in environmental matrices. The outcome of studies on the ice nucleation properties of these food-containing aerosols might help in the physicochemical understanding of other biomolecule-induced ice nucleation, which is still an underdeveloped research area.

Physicochemical properties of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) starch annealed at different temperatures

AbstractBambara groundnut is a starchy grain that could serve as a starch source for the industry. In the native form, starches are generally unsuitable for most industrial applications and hence are modified. Physical modification methods including annealing are preferred for starch modification because they are environmentally friendly. Previous studies on the annealing of Bambara starch focused on single‐temperature treatment. This study investigated the physicochemical properties of Bambara starch annealed at varying temperatures of 45, 50, 55, and 60°C for 24 h. The amylose contents of the starches varied between 27.18% and 28.53%. Annealed Bambara starches showed significantly lower swelling and solubility values than the native starch. Furthermore, except for the time to peak (4.05–4.44 min), pasting temperatures (81.95–84.00°C), gelatinization temperatures (70.47–77.23°C), and gelatinization enthalpies (3.95–4.41 J/g) which increased the pasting properties of the annealed starches decreased. The result of this study should guide researchers on the specific annealing temperature to use for specific food and industrial applications.Novelty impact statementBambara grains are rich in starch which could be used as an alternative and cheap starch source to the conventional corn and potato sources. This study report for the first time the impact of different annealing temperatures on the physicochemical properties of Bambara starch. Annealing was chosen because it is an environmentally friendly method of starch modification. Results from this study show that the modified starch would have varying applications in the food industry, for example as a thickener, and as a stabilizer.

Nutraceutical Enrichment of Animal Feed by Filamentous Fungi Fermentation

There is an urgent need for improvements in animal production, particularly for ruminants, such that more sustainable and efficient processes are developed for obtaining more nutritious and efficient feeds. Filamentous fungi can add value to residual plant biomass, and may also have the potential to produce metabolites and enrich plant biomasses used in animal nutrition, converting them into nutraceutical sources. Thus, in this work, filamentous fungal fermentation of ruminant feed biomasses commonly used in Brazil was performed, and the enrichment for bioactive metabolites was tested. For this, Fistulina hepatica, Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Panus lecomtei, and Aspergillus terreus were grown for 28 days on different substrates: starchy grains- (sorghum, oat, and corn), fibrous substrates (coast-cross, rice husk, and moringa plant) and protein-rich substrates (cottonseed cake and pigeon pea plant). Fermented substrates were evaluated for laccase activity, crude protein, β-glucan, and lovastatin content. The highest growth rate was observed for G. lucidum in oat substrate (OT-01) (0.708 ± 0.035 cm/day) and F. hepatica in oat + coast-cross + pigeon pea treatment (OT-10) (0.607 ± 0.012 cm/day). High laccase activity was observed for P. lecomtei grown in starchy grain + moringa + pigeon pea substrate, reaching an activity of 416.8 ± 20.28 U/g. A. terreus growth in ST-09 (sorghum + pigeon pea) showed higher protein (15.3 ± 0.46%), β-glucan (503.56 ± 8.6 mg/g) and lovastatin (1.10 ± 0.17 mg/g) content compared to untreated substrates. These results demonstrate that filamentous fungi are an alternative for nutraceutical enrichment of ruminant feed biomasses. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report in which P. lecomtei and F. hepatica are evaluated for their ability to be cultivated in ruminant feed substrates from Brazil.

Histopathological Studies of Mulberry Roots Infested by Meloidogyne incognita (Sem Analysis)

Background: Root knot disease caused by the nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chit wood is a serious problem in mulberry and causes severe damage to growth and development of plants. Root knot nematode alter or depletes nutritional values of mulberry leaves and adversely affects to the silkworm health in turn decreases cocoon quality and quantity. The anatomical changes in the roots due to nematode infestation affects the cocoon crop negatively, because mulberry leaves main food source for silkworm Bombyx mori L. ultimately leads to economic loss in silk industry. Methods: Hence the present study has been taken up to understand the histopathological changes that occur in the roots of mulberry V1 variety plants infested with nematode Meloidogyne incognita studied under the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with an interval of 15 and 60 days after nematode inoculation. Result: After fifteen days the root samples have shown thick starchy grains were accumulated in the parenchymatous cells and intracellular movement of juveniles. Sixty days after the infested root samples had shown a number of large sized galls or knots. Ultra- structural observation of the root gall cross sections under scanning electron microscope revealed that serious anatomical changes occur in the infested mulberry root tissues.

Drying Behavior of Bulgur and Its Effect on Phytochemical Content.

The objective of this study was to determine the influence of two types of dryers (hot air oven and vacuum dryer) and the yellow berry percentage (1.75%, 36.25%, 43.25%) on the drying process and phytochemical content of bulgur. Results showed that the Midilli model successfully described the moisture diffusion during drying at 60 °C in all bulgur samples, where an increase in yellow berry percentage generated an increase in moisture content. Effective diffusion coefficient (Deff) increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) from 7.05 × 10−11 to 7.82 × 10−11 (m2.s−1) and from 7.73 × 10−11 to 7.82 × 10−11 (m2.s−1) for the hot air oven and vacuum dryer, respectively. However, it decreased significantly with a decrease of yellow berry percentage. It was concluded that the vacuum dryer provided faster and more effective drying than the hot air oven. Total polyphenol (TPC), total flavonoid (TFC), and yellow pigment contents (YPC) of bulgur were investigated. TPC ranged between 0.54 and 0.64 (mg GAE/g dm); TFC varied from 0.48 to 0.61 (mg QE/g dm). The YPC was found to be between 0.066 and 0.079 (mg ß-carotene/100g dm). Yellow berry percentage positively and significantly affected the TPC, TFC, and YPC contents due to the hard separation of the outer layers from the starchy grain during the debranning step.

Value-Added Products from Ethanol Fermentation—A Review

Global demand for renewable and sustainable energy is increasing, and one of the most common biofuels is ethanol. Most ethanol is produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) fermentation of either crops rich in sucrose (e.g., sugar cane and sugar beet) or starch-rich crops (e.g., corn and starchy grains). Ethanol produced from these sources is termed a first-generation biofuel. Yeast fermentation can yield a range of additional valuable co-products that accumulate during primary fermentation (e.g., protein concentrates, water soluble metabolites, fusel alcohols, and industrial enzymes). Distillers’ solubles is a liquid co-product that can be used in animal feed or as a resource for recovery of valuable materials. In some processes it is preferred that this fraction is modified by a second fermentation with another fermentation organism (e.g., lactic acid bacteria). Such two stage fermentations can produce valuable compounds, such as 1,3-propanediol, organic acids, and bacteriocins. The use of lactic acid bacteria can also lead to the aggregation of stillage proteins and enable protein aggregation into concentrates. Once concentrated, the protein has utility as a high-protein feed ingredient. After separation of protein concentrates the remaining solution is a potential source of several known small molecules. The purpose of this review is to provide policy makers, bioethanol producers, and researchers insight into additional added-value products that can be recovered from ethanol beers. Novel products may be isolated during or after distillation. The ability to isolate and purify these compounds can provide substantial additional revenue for biofuel manufacturers through the development of marketable co-products.

Whole sweet sorghum plant as a promising feedstock for biobutanol production via biorefinery approaches: Techno-economic analysis

Sweet sorghum plant, containing starchy grain, juice, and bagasse, is a potential energy crop for biobutanol production as an advanced renewable fuel. This paper assesses the economy of production of butanol from the whole sweet sorghum plant based on available experimental results. Different scenarios, including separate hydrolysis and fermentation (scenarios 1 and 2), simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (scenario 3), and co-fermentation of the juice and pretreated stalk (scenario 4), were simulated using Aspen Plus®. Moreover, in scenarios 5 and 6, the stalk is directly fed to the fermenters without juice extraction and pretreatment. Gas stripping was used to enhance the recovery and fermentation yield in scenarios 2 to 6. Acetone, supplied from the process products, was used for bagasse pretreatment in scenarios 1–4. Economic viability was investigated using Aspen Process Economic Analyzer. The butanol production price was 0.62, 0.44, 0.45, 0.61, 0.39, and 0.56 US$/L for scenarios 1 to 6, respectively. The most profitable process was scenario 5, where US$47.75 million total capital is required for the production of 11,260 tonne/year butanol. The sensitivity analysis of butanol sales price showed that even in the case of its value reduction by 50%, scenario 5 can still be profitable.

Production of Isomalto-Oligosaccharides from Available Economic Starchy Materials

ABSTRACT:Isomalto-oligosaccharides have a great potential to improve the physiochemical quality of many foods as anti-fading agent for food pigments, as prebiotic, food antioxidant and as a sweetener. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) has been applied in the production of many fermented foods (Couto and Sanroman, 2006). Various fungi have been used in order to produce amylolytic enzymes for starch degradation. Many fungal amylolytic enzymes are used to advantage in prebiotic oligosaccharide production. Isomaltooligosaccharides which are known as prebiotic branched-oligosaccharides have been synthesized from starchy grains (Kuriki et al, 1993; Pan and Lee, 2005). The effects of agricultural substrate and fungal strain were studied to maximize the isomalto- oligosaccharides yield. The production of Isomalto-oligosaccharides by fungal fermentation using available economic starchy materials as wheat, white corn, and starch was investigated. This study was designed to investigate the potential use of economic crops of Egypt to produce prebiotic isomalto-oligosaccharides using the process of solid state fungal fermentation. Solid state fermentation with Aspergillus Oryzae EMCC 126 was studied to increase the isomalto-oligosaccharides yield. Results show that the fermentation of wheat with A. Oryzae produced the highest concentrations of total reducing sugar (460.8 mg/g) and free amino nitrogen (20.3 mg/g) with the highest levels of amylolytic activity (87.0 U/g), α-amylase (32.5 U/g) and α-glucosidase (1.2 U/g) compared with that produced from fermentation of white corn or starch. The appropriate fermentation time for 5 days, the fermented wheat slurry was experimented on further in mashing for syrup production. The obtained wheat syrup contained the highest amounts of isomaltose, panose, and isomaltotriose, which were detected by very small amounts in the syrup of corn and starch.

Evaluating the Relationship between Ceramic Wall Thickness and Heating Effectiveness, Fuel Efficiency, and Thermal Shock Resistance

Abstract In 1983, David Braun proposed that a shift from thicker- to thinner-walled cooking vessels in the midwestern United States was triggered by an increased dietary reliance on starchy grains (Braun 1983). Drawing on well-established principles of materials science (Van Vlack 1964), he suggested that, compared to thicker-walled vessels, thinner-walled ones would have been more thermally efficient and less likely to break from thermal shock. These attributes, he suggested, would have been advantageous for preparing seeds and grains that require lengthy cooking periods. Although consistent with materials science principles, Braun’s proposition has never been tested. In this paper, we present results of experiments undertaken to evaluate the relative cooking efficiency of thin- versus thick-walled vessels and consider the implications of these findings for understanding traditional ceramic technologies.

A preliminary study of fonio-moringa seed meal-based complementary food in Wistar rats.

Effect of fonio-moringa seed meal (FMSM)-based complementary food in Wistar rats was assessed in a 28days balanced study. Seventy, 21-day-old Wistar rats were allotted to seven groups in a completely randomized design. Infant weaning foods (IWFs) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 had 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% FMSM inclusion levels, respectively, while two commercial IWFs purchased were coded CFT and CFC. The water absorption capacity, swelling power, and the pasting properties, except peak time varied (p<.05) among the IWFs. Rats fed on IWFs 3 and 4 had comparable weight gain with those fed on the commercial foods. The heart and kidney relative weights were influenced (p<.05), while villus length (duodenum) of the rats were significant (p<.05). The blood indices were not significant, but the alanine aminotransferase and cholesterol levels ranged 15.65-32.25µ/dl and 75.75-94.55mg/100ml, respectively. Incorporation of 10% FMSM is recommended in IWFs. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The need to reduce hunger and starvation among the less-privileged people in society is becoming increasingly important. Specifically, many infants, preschool and school children are often not having access to nutritive foods that will enhance their mental alertness. The commercial IWFs on sale in Nigeria are in most cases high in prices and consequently out of the reach of the populace. Fonio is a starchy grain with an important potential not only as a survival food but as a compliment for standard diets. Also, moringa seed is known to be of nutritional value. Most infant formulae are based on maize and soybean and it is hoped that the incorporation of FMSM in the infant weaning formula will help to increase the nutritive value and stem the cost of IWFs.

Evaluating the Relationship between Ceramic Wall Thickness and Heating Effectiveness, Fuel Efficiency, and Thermal Shock Resistance

In 1983, David Braun proposed that a shift from thicker- to thinner-walled cooking vessels in the midwestern United States was triggered by an increased dietary reliance on starchy grains (Braun 19...

Different endosperm structures in wheat and corn affected in vitro rumen fermentation and nitrogen utilization of rice straw-based diet

Starchy grain is usually supplemented to diets containing low-quality forage to provide sufficient energy for ruminant animals. Ruminal degradation of grain starch mainly depends on the hydrolysis of the endosperm, which may be variable among grain sources. This study was conducted to investigate the influence of endosperm structure of wheat and corn on in vitro rumen fermentation and nitrogen (N) utilization of rice straw. The 3×4 factorial design included three ratios of concentrate to forage (35:65, 50:50 and 65:35) and four ratios of wheat to corn starch (20:80, 40:60, 60:40 and 80:20). The endosperm structure was detected by scanning electronic microscopy and a confocal laser scanning microscopic. An in vitro gas test was performed to evaluate the rumen fermentation characteristics and N utilization. Starch granules were embedded in the starch–protein matrix in corn, but more granules were separated from the matrix in the wheat endosperm. With the increasing ratio of wheat, rate and extent of gas production, total volatile fatty acids, and ammonia N increased linearly (P<0.01), but microbial protein concentration decreased (quadratic, P<0.01), with the maximum value at a ratio of 40% wheat. The efficiency of N utilization decreased linearly (P<0.01). Rumen fermentation and N utilization were significantly affected by the concentrate-to-forage ratio (P<0.01). Significant interactions between the concentrate-to-forage ratio and the wheat-to-corn ratio were detected in total volatile fatty acids and the efficiency of N utilization (P<0.01). In summary, the starch–protein matrix and starch granules in the wheat and corn endosperm mixture play an important role in the regulation of rumen fermentation and N utilization under low-quality forage.

Investigation of morphological and anatomical underground parts structure of genus Primula L. Cultivated species

Investigation of morphological and anatomical underground parts structure of genus Primula L. Cultivated species

Bio-Heat Is a Key Environmental Driver Shaping the Microbial Community of Medium-Temperature Daqu.

"Daqu" is a saccharifying and fermenting agent commonly used in the traditional solid-state fermentation industry (e.g., baijiu and vinegar). The patterns of microbial community succession and flavor formation are highly similar among batches, yet the mechanisms promoting temporal succession in the Daqu microbial ecology remain unclear. Here, we first correlated temporal profiles of microbial community succession with environmental variables (temperature, moisture, and titratable acidity) in medium temperature Daqu (MT-Daqu) throughout fermentation. Temperature dynamics significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with the quick succession of MT-Daqu microbiota in the first 12 d of fermentation, while the community structure was relatively stable after 12 d. Then, we explored the effect of temperature on the MT-Daqu community assembly. In the first 4 d of fermentation, the rapid propagation of most bacterial taxa and several fungal taxa, including Candida, Wickerhamomyces, and unclassified Dipodascaceae and Saccharomycetales species, significantly increased MT-Daqu temperature to 55°C. Subsequently, sustained bio-heat generated by microbial metabolism (53 to 56°C) within MT-Daqu inhibited the growth of most microbes from day 4 to day 12, while thermotolerant taxa, including Bacillus, unclassified Streptophyta, Weissella, Thermoactinomyces, Thermoascus, and Thermomyces survived or kept on growing. Furthermore, temperature as a major driving force on the shaping of MT-Daqu microbiota was validated. Lowering the fermentation temperature by placing the MT-Daqu in a 37°C incubator resulted in decreased relative abundances of thermotolerant taxa, including Bacillus, Thermoactinomyces, and Thermoascus, in the MT-Daqu microbiota. This study revealed that bio-heat functioned as a primary endogenous driver promoting the formation of functional MT-Daqu microbiota.IMPORTANCE Humans have mastered the Daqu preparation technique of cultivating functional microbiota on starchy grains over thousands of years, and it is well known that the metabolic activity of these microbes is key to the flavor production of Chinese baijiu. The pattern of microbial community succession and flavor formation remains highly similar between batches, yet mechanistic insight into these patterns and into microbial population fidelity to specific environmental conditions remains unclear. Our study revealed that bio-heat was generated within Daqu bricks in the first 4 d of fermentation, concomitant with rapid microbial propagation and metabolism. The sustained bio-heat may then function as a major endogenous driving force promoting the formation of the MT-Daqu microbiota from day 4 to day 12. The bio-heat-driven growth of thermotolerant microorganisms might contribute to the formation of flavor metabolites. This study provides useful information for the temperature-based modulation of microbiota function during the fermentation of Daqu.

Phenolic compounds removal from sweet sorghum grain for efficient biobutanol production without nutrient supplementation

Industrial scale production of biobutanol has been hampered by substrate cost and availability. Sweet sorghum grain is an inexpensive substrate for acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) production by Clostridium acetobutylicum. Amylolytic activity of C. acetobutylicum eliminates the need for the hydrolysis of starchy grain prior to fermentation. However, untreated grain contains phenolic compounds, i.e. tannins, which exhibit inhibitory effects against amylolytic activity and ABE fermentation. Less than 3g/L ABE was obtained from untreated sweet sorghum grain at different substrate concentrations. Concentration of 0.2mM gallic acid equivalent (GAE) of sorghum tannins was detected as the critical concentration which inhibits severely ABE fermentation. Applying a multi-stage hot water treatment resulted in tannins removal and significant enhancement in total ABE production up to 18g/L. For efficient butanol production from 40, 60, and 80g/L sorghum grain, hot water treatment with two, five, and six stages were found to be essential for efficient butanol production, respectively. Moreover, the amylolytic activity of C. acetobutylicum was inhibited by sorghum grain tannins, more than twice as high as the effects on the ABE fermentation pathway. Furthermore, unlike most substrates, sweet sorghum grain could provide all nutrients required for ABE fermentation, eliminating the need for supplementing expensive additional nutrients.

Active Optical Sensors in Irrigated Durum Wheat: Nitrogen and Water Effects

Core Ideas Interest in the use of active optical sensors for guiding N fertilizer management of crops like wheat has grown rapidly since the mid‐1990s. Recently, active optical sensors have been used to assess water status of crops in addition to plant N status. We conducted a 2‐yr study on a Casa Grande sandy loam soil in Maricopa, AZ, with durum wheat under an overhead sprinkler system. Uniquely, this study had 10 unrandomized levels of irrigation and five rates of N fertilizer. The objectives were to compare 12 vegetation indices for their ability to distinguish irrigation and N fertilizer rates and to determine how well the vegetation indices estimated biomass, plant N, grain yield, grain N, and yellow berry. The canopy chlorophyll content index, Datt, and Meris terrestrial chlorophyll index were the most consistent vegetation indices in responding well to N, with minimal water effects. No vegetation indices detected water stress with minimal N effect as well as canopy temperature measured with infrared thermometers. Interest in active optical sensors (AOS) for guiding N fertilizer management of crops like wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) has grown rapidly since their introduction in the mid‐1990s. Recently, AOS have been used to assess water status of crops in addition to plant N status. Specific vegetation indices (VIs) might assess N stress while minimizing effects of water stress. A 2‐yr study (2013–2014) was conducted on a Casa Grande sandy loam soil in Maricopa, AZ, with durum wheat (T. durum Desf) under an overhead sprinkler system. Uniquely, this study had 10 unrandomized levels of irrigation and five rates of N fertilizer. The objectives were to compare 12 VIs for their ability to distinguish irrigation and N fertilizer effects and to determine how well the VIs estimated biomass, plant N, grain yield, grain N, and yellow berry (opaque starchy grain). Two Crop Circle 470 AOS were passed at a fixed height, 1 m above the tallest plants in the field, every 7 to 10 d during the growing season. The normalize difference vegetation indices (NDVIs) showed highly significant response to N rate in three of four growth‐stage‐years, but significant water and small N effects at Zadoks 32 (early stem elongation) in 2014. The canopy chlorophyll content index (CCCI), DATT (Datt, 1999), and Meris terrestrial chlorophyll index (MTCI) were the most consistent VIs in distinguishing N rates, with minimal water effects. No VIs detected water stress with minimal N effect as well as the infrared thermometer (IRT) measurements of canopy temperature did.

Integrating starchy substrate into cellulosic ethanol production to boost ethanol titers and yields

Starchy grains as current major feedstocks for bioethanol production are competing with food supply; therefore, lignocellulosic biomass was pursued as an alternative feedstock for bioethanol production due to its high availability and low price. Commercial production of second-generation bioethanol from lignocellulosic biomass is still under development as significant challenges of low fermentation efficiency, low ethanol titers, high enzyme cost, and high water usage remain to be addressed. In this research, sugar-rich substrates such as starchy grains were integrated into cellulosic ethanol production, which could boost ethanol titers and ethanol yields. The substrates with various ratios of corn flour and hydrothermal treated corn stover (4:12; 8:8; 12:4; 12:12) were evaluated on the ethanol concentration and ethanol yield via simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Ethanol concentration and ethanol yield decreased with increasing amounts of treated corn stover in the mixtures. The maximum ethanol concentration (68.7g/L) was achieved at the corn flour and corn stover ratio of 12:12 using raw starch granular enzyme with the ethanol yield of 86.0%, whereas the maximum ethanol yield was obtained at the corn flour and corn stover ratio of 12:4 as it contained higher amounts of corn flour. All the ethanol concentrations from various mixtures of corn flour and corn stover were higher than 37.9g/L from the control with 100% of treated corn stover (16%, w/v). Saccharification and fermentation processes were optimized to reduce energy cost and the optimized process was able to complete ethanol fermentation within 48h.