Star Formation In Elliptical Galaxies Research Articles

Star-forming early-type galaxies and quiescent late-type galaxies in the local Universe

Aims. The general consensus is that late-type galaxies undergo intense star-formation, activity while early-type galaxies are mostly inactive. We question this general rule and investigate the existence of star-forming early-type and quiescent late-type galaxies in the local Universe. By computing the physical properties of these galaxies and by using information on their structural properties as well as the density of their local environment, we seek to understand the differences from their ‘typical’ counterparts. Methods. We made use of the multi-wavelength photometric data (from the ultraviolet to the sub-millimetre), for 2209 morphologically classified galaxies in the Galaxy And Mass Assembly survey. Furthermore, we separated the galaxies into subsets of star-forming and quiescent based on their dominant ionising process, making use of established criteria based on the WHα width and the [NII/Hα] ratio. Taking advantage of the spectral energy distribution fitting code CIGALE, we derived galaxy properties, such as the stellar mass, dust mass, and star-formation rate, and we also estimated the unattenuated and the dust-absorbed stellar emission, for both the young (≤200 Myr) and old (> 200 Myr) stellar populations. Results. We find that about 47% of E/S0 galaxies in our sample show ongoing star-formation activity and 8% of late-type galaxies are quiescent. The star-forming elliptical galaxies, together with the little blue spheroids, constitute a population that follows the star-forming main sequence of spiral galaxies very well. The fraction of the luminosity originating from young stars in the star-forming early-type galaxies is quite substantial (∼25%) and similar to that of the star-forming late-type galaxies. The stellar luminosity absorbed by the dust (and used to heat the dust grains) is highest in star-forming E/S0 galaxies (an average of 35%) followed by star-forming Sa-Scd galaxies (27%) with this fraction becoming significantly smaller for their quiescent analogues (6% and 16%, for E/S0 and Sa-Scd, respectively). Star-forming and quiescent E/S0 galaxies donate quite different fractions of their young stellar luminosities to heat up the dust grains (74% and 36%, respectively), while these fractions are very similar for star-forming and quiescent Sa-Scd galaxies (59% and 60%, respectively). Investigating possible differences between star-forming and quiescent galaxies, we find that the intrinsic (unattenuated) shape of the SED of the star-forming galaxies is, on average, very similar for all morphological types. Concerning their structural parameters, quiescent galaxies tend to show larger values of the r-band Sérsic index and larger effective radii (compared to star-forming galaxies). Finally, we find that star-forming galaxies preferably reside in lower density environments compared to the quiescent ones, which exhibit a higher percentage of sources being members of groups.

Описание сценария развития протогалактик с малыми угловыми моментами через каскадную фрагментацию с образованием протоскоплений и протозвезд на основе теории графов

The process of proto galaxies development is considered in the period of Universe cooling, when their masses are equal to the Jeans values. As a result of further cooling, the proto systems are subjected to the cascade fragmentation mechanism under which the more and more new smaller fragments are formed. Primary fragments are future galaxies (the upper limit of the mass of fragments falls within the mass range of galaxies), the ancestors of future star clusters, stars and sub stars form in the secondary fragmentation wave. In order to describe cascade fragmentation in proto systems with an extremely small angular momentum, a directed graph is constructed based on a general idea about the evolution of stellar systems. Star formation efficiency evaluations are carried out for proto systems, which determined by power-law mass spectra and the probabilities of key events are calculated. The fractional contents of the substance leaving for the formation of a new generation of stars and sub stars are calculated, depending on the μ-th star formation cycle (for its total number N). The dependence of the mass fraction transferred from the proto system to the system is presented in graphical form as a function of the fragments number N. Four options of the evolution of stellar systems such as galaxies are obtained, which are described by mass spectra with different exponents at the first and second stages of evolution. It is shown that, depending on the evolutionary scenario determined by the combination of mass spectra at the first and second stages of evolution, galaxies at the final stage of evolution may have different populations. According to one of the scenarios, galaxies should contain stellar composition limited by the masses of dwarf stars (≤ 0.8 M⊙). For the calculated maximum value Nmax ≈ 70 and the time of one fragmentation cycle, which occurs during one-star star formation in stellar clusters of galaxies ~ 107 years, it is expected that the time of complete gas depletion in stellar systems such as elliptical galaxies will be ~ 7•109 years. Considering that the characteristic time for the beginning of the formation of galaxies is ≈ 12•109 years, the obtained result explains satisfactorily the absence of star formation in elliptical galaxies over the past 5 billion years. Further development of research in this direction shows that it possible to understand the causes of differences in the composition of populations of various types of galaxies.

Gas accretion as fuel for residual star formation in Galaxy Zoo elliptical galaxies

ABSTRACT In this letter we construct a large sample of early-type galaxies (ETGs) with measured gas-phase metallicities from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and Galaxy Zoo in order to investigate the origin of the gas that fuels their residual star formation. We use this sample to show that star-forming elliptical galaxies have a substantially different gas-phase metallicity distribution from spiral galaxies, with ≈7.4 per cent having a very low gas-phase metallicity for their mass. These systems typically have fewer metals in the gas phase than they do in their stellar photospheres, which strongly suggests that the material fuelling their recent star formation was accreted from an external source. We use a chemical evolution model to show that the enrichment time-scale for low-metallicity gas is very short, and thus that cosmological accretion and minor mergers are likely to supply the gas in ≳ 37 per cent of star-forming ETGs, in good agreement with estimates derived from other independent techniques.

TOWARD A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL FOR FEEDBACK BY ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI: NEW INSIGHTS FROM M87 OBSERVATIONS BY LOFAR,FERMI, AND H.E.S.S.

Feedback by active galactic nuclei (AGNs) appears to be critical in balancing radiative cooling of the low-entropy gas at the centers of galaxy clusters and in mitigating the star formation of elliptical galaxies. New observations of M87 enable us to put forward a comprehensive model for the physical heating mechanism. Low-frequency radio observations by LOFAR revealed the absence of fossil cosmic-ray (CR) electrons in the radio halo surrounding M87. This puzzle can be resolved by accounting for the CR release from the radio cocoons and the subsequent mixing of CRs with the dense ambient intracluster gas, which thermalizes the electrons on a timescale similar to the radio halo age of 40 Myr. Hadronic interactions of similarly injected CR protons with the ambient gas should produce an observable gamma-ray signal in accordance with the steady emission of the low state of M87 detected by Fermi and H.E.S.S. Hence, we normalize the CR population to the gamma-ray emission, which shows the same spectral slope as the CR injection spectrum probed by LOFAR, thereby supporting a common origin. We show that CRs, which stream at the Alfven velocity with respect to the plasma rest frame, heat the surrounding thermal plasma at a rate that balances that of radiative cooling on average at each radius. However, the resulting global thermal equilibrium is locally unstable and allows for the formation of the observed cooling multi-phase medium through thermal instability. Provided that CR heating balances cooling during the emerging "cooling flow," the collapse of the majority of the gas is halted around 1 keV - in accordance with X-ray data. We show that both the existence of a temperature floor and the similar radial scaling of the heating and cooling rates are generic predictions of the CR heating model.

DIRECT DETECTIONS OF YOUNG STARS IN NEARBY ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES

Small amounts of star formation in elliptical galaxies are suggested by several results: surprisingly young ages from optical line indices, cooling X-ray gas, and mid-IR dust emission. Such star formation has previously been difficult to directly detect, but using UV Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) imaging, we have identified individual young stars and star clusters in four nearby ellipticals. This technique is orders of magnitude more sensitive than other methods, allowing detections of star formation to 10^(-5) Msun/yr. Ongoing star formation is detected in all galaxies, including three ellipticals that have previously exhibited potential signposts of star forming conditions (NGC 4636, NGC 4697, and NGC 4374), as well as the typical "red and dead" NGC 3379. The current star formation in our closest targets, where we are most complete, is between 1-8x10^(-5) Msun/yr. The star formation history was roughly constant from 0.5-1.5 Gyr (at 3-5x10^(-4) Msun/yr), but decreased by a factor of several in the past 0.3 Gyr. Most star clusters have a mass between 10^2 - 10^4 Msun. The specific star formation rates of ~10^(-16) yr^(-1) (at the present day) or ~10^(-14) yr^(-1) (when averaging over the past Gyr) imply that a fraction 10^(-8) of the stellar mass is younger than 100 Myr and 10^(-5) is younger than 1 Gyr, quantifying the level of frosting of recent star formation over the otherwise passive stellar population. There is no obvious correlation between either the presence or spatial distribution of postulated star formation indicators and the star formation we detect.

Luminosity-dependent star formation history of S0 galaxies: evidence from GALEX–SDSS–2MASS–WISE colours

We combine UV/optical/near-IR/mid-IR data on a sample of ∼240 S0 galaxies to examine various star formation related processes in them. We split the sample into bright and faint S0 galaxies based on their K-band luminosity. Comparing the far-ultraviolet (FUV)−near-ultraviolet (NUV) versus NUV−K colour–colour diagram with a simple stellar population model shows that ellipticals and bright S0 galaxies are dominated by a stellar population of age >109 yr while faint S0 galaxies may contain stars as young as 108 yr, providing evidence for relatively recent star formation activity. The strength of the 4000 Å break is also systematically higher in brighter S0 galaxies, again indicating the presence of an old stellar population. Their mid-IR colours indicate that bright S0 colours are like those of ellipticals while faint S0 colours are more like spirals. All these observations are consistent with a scenario in which low-luminosity S0 galaxies likely formed by the stripping of gas from the discs of late-type spiral galaxies, which in turn formed their pseudo-bulges through secular evolution processes, possibly involving multiple episodes of star formation. On the other hand, more luminous S0 galaxies likely formed the bulk of their stars at early epochs, similar to the star formation in elliptical galaxies, and are characterized by an old coeval stellar population and classical bulges.

X-RAY PROPERTIES OF YOUNG EARLY-TYPE GALAXIES. II. ABUNDANCE RATIO IN THE HOT INTERSTELLAR MATTER

Using Chandra X-ray observations of young, post-merger elliptical galaxies, we present X-ray characteristics of age-related observational results, by comparing with typical old elliptical galaxies in terms of metal abundances in the hot interstellar matter (ISM). While the absolute element abundances may be uncertain because of unknown systematic errors and partly because of the smaller amount of hot gas in young ellipticals, the relative abundance ratios (e.g., the alpha-element to Fe ratio, most importantly Si/Fe ratio) can be relatively well constrained. We find that in two young elliptical galaxies (NGC 720 and NGC 3923) the Si to Fe abundance ratio is super-solar (at a 99% significance level), in contrast to typical old elliptical galaxies where the Si to Fe abundance ratio is close to solar. Also the O/Mg ratio is close to solar in the two young elliptical galaxies, as opposed to the sub-solar O/Mg ratio reported in old elliptical galaxies. Both features appear to be less significant outside the effective radius (roughly 30" for the galaxies under study), consistent with the observations that confine to the centermost regions the signatures of recent star formation in elliptical galaxies. Observed differences between young and old elliptical galaxies can be explained by the additional contribution from SNe II ejecta in the former. In young elliptical galaxies, the later star formation associated with recent mergers would have a dual effect, resulting both in galaxy scale winds - and therefore smaller observed amounts of hot ISM - because of the additional SNII heating, and in different metal abundances, because of the additional SNII yields.

THE HUBBLE SEQUENCE IN GROUPS: THE BIRTH OF THE EARLY-TYPE GALAXIES

The physical mechanisms and timescales that determine the morphological signatures and the quenching of star formation of typical (~L*) elliptical galaxies are not well understood. To address this issue, we have simulated the formation of a group of galaxies with sufficient resolution to track the evolution of gas and stars inside about a dozen galaxy group members over cosmic history. Galaxy groups, which harbor many elliptical galaxies in the universe, are a particularly promising environment to investigate morphological transformation and star formation quenching, due to their high galaxy density, their relatively low velocity dispersion, and the presence of a hot intragroup medium. Our simulation reproduces galaxies with different Hubble morphologies and, consequently, enables us to study when and where the morphological transformation of galaxies takes place. The simulation does not include feedback from active galactic nuclei showing that it is not an essential ingredient for producing quiescent, red elliptical galaxies in galaxy groups. Ellipticals form, as suspected, through galaxy mergers. In contrast with what has often been speculated, however, these mergers occur at z>1, before the merging progenitors enter the virial radius of the group and before the group is fully assembled. The simulation also shows that quenching of star formation in the still star-forming elliptical galaxies lags behind their morphological transformation, but, once started, is taking less than a billion years to complete. As long envisaged the star formation quenching happens as the galaxies approach and enter the finally assembled group, due to quenching of gas accretion and (to a lesser degree) stripping. A similar sort is followed by unmerged, disk galaxies, which, as they join the group, are turned into the red-and-dead disks that abound in these environments.

Cool gas accretion, thermal evaporation, and quenching of star formation in elliptical galaxies

AbstractThe most evident features of colour‐magnitude diagrams of galaxies are the red sequence of quiescent galaxies, extending up to the brightest elliptical galaxies, and the blue cloud of star‐forming galaxies, which is truncated at a luminosity L ∼ L*. The truncation of the blue cloud indicates that in the most massive systems star formation must be quenched. For this to happen the virial‐temperature galactic gas must be kept hot and any accreted cold gas must be heated. The elimination of accreted cold gas can be due to thermal evaporation by the hot interstellar medium, which in turn is prevented from cooling by feedback from active galactic nuclei (© 2009 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Recent star-forming activity in local elliptical galaxies

The formation and evolution of elliptical galaxies (EGs) are still an open question. In particular, recent observations suggest that EGs are not only simple spheroidal systems of old stars. In this paper, we analyse a sample of EGs selected from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey in order to study the star-forming activity in local EGs. Among these 487 ellipticals, we find that 13 EGs show unambiguous evidence of recent star formation activity betrayed by conspicuous nebular emission lines. Using the evolutionary stellar population synthesis models and Lick absorption line indices, we derive stellar ages, metallicities and α-element abundances, and thus reconstruct the star formation and chemical evolution history of the star-forming elliptical galaxies (SFEGs) in our sample. We find that SFEGs have relative younger stellar population age, higher metallicity and lower stellar mass, and that their star formation history can be well described by a recent minor and short starburst superimposed on old stellar component. We also detect 11 E+A galaxies whose stellar population properties are closer to those of quiescent (normal) ellipticals than to star-forming ones. However, from the analysis of their absorption line indices, we note that our E+A galaxies show a significant fraction of intermediate-age stellar populations, remarkably different from the quiescent galaxies. This might suggest an evolutionary link between E+As and star-forming ellipticals. Finally, we confirm the relations between age, metallicity, α-element abundance and stellar mass for local EGs.

AN ENERGETIC AGN OUTBURST POWERED BY A RAPIDLY SPINNING SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE OR AN ACCRETING ULTRAMASSIVE BLACK HOLE

Powering the 10^62 erg nuclear outburst in the MS0735.6+7421 cluster central galaxy by accretion implies that its supermassive black hole (SMBH) grew by ~6x10^8 solar masses over the past 100 Myr. We place upper limits on the amount of cold gas and star formation near the nucleus of <10^9 solar masses and <2 solar masses per year, respectively. These limits imply that an implausibly large fraction of the preexisting cold gas in the bulge must have been consumed by its SMBH at the rate of ~3-5 solar masses per year while leaving no trace of star formation. Such a high accretion rate would be difficult to maintain by stellar accretion or the Bondi mechanism, unless the black hole mass approaches 10^11 solar masses. Its feeble nuclear luminosities in the UV, I, and X-ray bands compared to its enormous mechanical power are inconsistent with rapid accretion onto a ~5x10^9 solar mass black hole. We suggest instead that the AGN outburst is powered by a rapidly-spinning black hole. A maximally-spinning, 10^9 solar mass black hole contains enough rotational energy, ~10^62 erg, to quench a cooling flow over its lifetime and to contribute significantly to the excess entropy found in the hot atmospheres of groups and clusters. Two modes of AGN feedback may be quenching star formation in elliptical galaxies centered in cooling halos at late times. An accretion mode that operates in gas-rich systems, and a spin mode operating at modest accretion rates. The spin conjecture may be avoided in MS0735 by appealing to Bondi accretion onto a central black hole whose mass greatly exceeds 10^10 solar mass. The host galaxy's unusually large, 3.8 kpc stellar core radius (light deficit) may witness the presence of an ultramassive black hole.

The use of [Mg/Fe] to trace truncated star formation in elliptical galaxies

The present study tries to identify the mechanism responsible for the hostility to star formation (SF) found in galaxies of dense environments. Among the several candidate mechanisms, the gas-rich merger of galaxies stands as a plausible option since the realisation that the AGN-feedback, which follows the merger, can deplete the gas and truncate the SF of the resulting spheroid. Our strategy is to look for traces of SF truncation in the elliptical galaxies of Hickson compact groups (HCGs), because these are the ideal environments for mergers to occur. The stellar populations of 22 elliptical galaxies in HCGs and 12 in the field are compared using three different SSP models and two different emission correction procedures. Along the study, an extensive use of the [Mg/Fe] abundance ratio is made, because it contains useful information on the timescale of the SF history of the galaxies. Systematic differences of [Mg/Fe] and [Z/H] between both galaxy subsamples (field and HCGs) suggest that SF truncation events have affected the intermediate-mass galaxies of the HCGs. Our interpretation is that when a field galaxy enters the dense HCG environment it merges with another galaxy and ends up as a passive elliptical with traces of SF truncation.

Hierarchical Growth and Cosmic Star Formation: Enrichment, Outflows, and Supernova Rates

The cosmic star formation histories are evaluated for different minimum masses of the initial halo structures, with allowance for realistic gas outflows. With a minimum halo mass of 10^{7} - 10^{8} M_odot and a moderate outflow efficiency, we reproduce both the current baryon fraction and the early chemical enrichment of the IGM. The intensity of the formation rate of ``normal'' stars is also well constrained by the observations: it has to be dominated by star formation in elliptical galaxies, except perhaps at very low redshift. The fraction of baryons in stars is predicted as are also the type Ia and II supernova event rates. Comparison with SN observations in the redshift range z=0-2 allows us to set strong constraints on the time delay of type Ia supernovae (a total delay of \sim 4 Gyr is required to fit the data), the lower end of the mass range of the progenitors (2 - 8 M_odot) and the fraction of white dwarfs that reproduce the type Ia supernova (about 1 per cent). The intensity in the initial starburst of zero metallicity stars below 270 M_\odot must be limited in order to avoid premature overenrichment of the IGM. Only about 10 - 20 % of the metals present in the IGM at z = 0 have been produced by population III stars at very high z. The remaining 80 - 90 % are ejected later by galaxies forming normal stars, with a maximum outflow efficiency occurring at a redshift of about 5. We conclude that 10^{-3} of the mass in baryons must lie in first massive stars in order to produce enough ionizing photons to allow early reionization of the IGM by z \sim 15.

Actively Star-forming Elliptical Galaxies at Low Redshifts in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey

We report the discovery of actively star-forming elliptical galaxies in a morphologically classified sample of bright galaxies at a low redshift obtained from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. The emission lines of these galaxies do not show the characteristics of active galactic nuclei, and thus their strong Hα emission is ascribed to star formation with a rate nearly as high as that seen in typical late spiral galaxies. This is taken as evidence against the traditional view that all elliptical galaxies formed early and now evolve only passively. The frequency of such star-forming elliptical galaxies is a few tenths of a percent in the sample but increases to 3% if we include active S0 galaxies. We can identify these galaxies as probable progenitors of so-called E+A galaxies that show the strong Balmer absorption feature of A stars superimposed on an old star population. The approximate match of the abundance of active elliptical plus S0 galaxies to that of E+A galaxies indicates that the duration of such late star formation episodes is of the order of 1 Gyr. If we interpret these galaxies as new additions to the early-type galaxy population, and if we assume a power law for their number evolution, the abundance of early-type galaxies at z = 1 is about 30% less than that at z = 0.

Feedback and late star formation in elliptical galaxies

We present a one-zone model of star formation in elliptical galaxies that includes thermal feedback from supernovae and a temperature dependent star formation efficiency. The modulation of feedback with the total mass results in the triggering of late episodes of star formation in low-mass galaxies. These small `bursts' can occur as late as at redshifts z ∼ 0.5 but they do not change significantly the optical and NIR color-magnitude relation (CMR) of cluster galaxies, both locally and out to moderate redshifts, in agreement with the observations. However, they introduce a large scatter at the faint end of the NUV-Optical CMR, as recently found in cluster Abell 851 (z = 0.41).

A population synthesis study of the galaxy NGC5018

We have carried out long-slit spectral observations of NGC5018 in the range λλ3600 – 7500 Å using the BAO 2.16 m telescope. By means of a population synthesis based on a star cluster spectral sample, we have studied the galaxy's interior stellar populations and star formation history. We present the inferred proportions of its various populations with different ages and metal abundances. The results indicate that in NGC5018 there exist not only a great many old stellar components with low metal abundance, but also some younger stellar populations ( T = 5 × 10 8yr) that also contribute importantly to the galaxy's luminosity. The physical cause for the formation of these younger stellar populations may be tidal interactions and minor mergers with other galaxies. And the history of star formation in elliptical galaxies has probably undergone two or more burst episodes. The results can explain well the observed characteristics of NGC5018, such as its somewhat bluer color and weaker spectral index Mg 2.

Chemical evolution in a model for the joint formation of quasars and spheroids

Direct and indirect pieces of observational evidence point to a strong connection between high-redshift quasars and their host galaxies. In the framework of a model where the shining of the quasar is the episode that stops the formation of the galactic spheroid inside a virialized halo, it has been proven possible to explain the submillimetre source counts together with their related statistics and the local luminosity function of spheroidal galaxies. The time delay between the virialization and the quasar manifestation required to fit the counts is short and incresing with decresing the host galaxy mass. In this paper we compute the detailed chemical evolution of gas and stars inside virialized haloes in the framework of the same model, taking into account the combined effects of cooling and stellar feedback. Under the assumption of negligible angular momentum, we are able to reproduce the main observed chemical properties of local ellipticals. In particular, by using the same duration of the bursts which are required in order to fit the submillimetre source counts, we recover the observed increase of the Mg/Fe ratio with galactic mass. Since for the most massive objects the assumed duration of the burst is Tburst < 0.6 Gyr, we end up with a picture for elliptical galaxy formation in which massive spheroids complete their assembly at early times, thus resembling a monolithic collapse, whereas smaller galaxies are allowed for a more prolonged star formation, thus allowing for a more complicated evolutionary history. In the framework of the adopted scenario, only quasar activity can provide energies large enough to stop the star formation very soon after virialization in the most massive galactic haloes. The chemical abundance of the gas that we estimate at the end of the burst matches well the metallicity inferred from the quasar spectra. Therefore, the assumption that quasar activity interrupts the main episode of star formation in elliptical galaxies turns out to be quite reasonable. In this scenario, we also point out that non-dusty extremely red objects are the best targets for searching for high-redshift Type Ia supernovae.

An Alignment Effect in FR I Radio Galaxies:U‐Band Polarimetry of the Abell 2597 Cluster Central Galaxy

We have obtained U-band polarimetry of the spatially extended optical continuum associated with the FR I radio source PKS 2322-122, located in the Abell 2597 cluster central galaxy. We find a 3 σ upper limit to the degree of optical continuum polarization of less than 6%. The accuracy of the measurement is limited primarily by our ability to measure the amount of diluting galactic starlight. This limit is inconsistent with the continuum being primarily scattered light or synchrotron radiation. We can therefore exclude models that attribute the continuum to scattered light from an active nucleus that is hidden from direct view. Our result does not support the unification paradigm for BL Lac objects and FR I radio sources. Essentially all of the data pertaining to the continuum along the radio source—the blue lobes—indicate that they are regions of recent star formation. The spatial coincidence between the lobes and disturbances in the radio source suggests that star formation may have been induced by an interaction between the radio source and the cool (less than 104 K) surrounding gas. This result, in addition to the results of a similar study of the A1795 cluster central galaxy, shows that under the appropriate conditions FR I radio sources may be capable of inducing significant episodes of star formation in elliptical galaxies. We compare the rest-frame U-band polarized luminosities and 1.4 GHz radio powers of A2597 and A1795 to those for several high-redshift radio galaxies exhibiting the alignment effect. We find that if the polarized luminosities of radio galaxies scale in proportion to their radio luminosities, we would not have detected a polarized signal in either A2597 or A1795. We suggest that the strength of the active galactic nucleus is the fundamental property distinguishing some powerful high-redshift radio galaxies exhibiting the alignment effect from the lower power FR I radio galaxies in cooling flows that exhibit the lobe phenomenon. While both FR I and FR II radio sources seem to be capable of triggering star formation, FR I radio sources seem to be incapable of producing a large enough polarized luminosity to contribute significantly to the aligned continuum radiation.

Secondary episodes of star formation in elliptical galaxies

We put upper limits on the secondary burst of star formation in elliptical galaxies of the Gonzalez sample, based on the colour dispersion around the U − V versus central velocity dispersion relation, and the equivalent width of Hβ absorption. Note that most of these galaxies locate in small groups. There is a significant number of Hβ strong galaxies that have EW(Hβ) > 2 A, but they do not always have bluer colours in U − V. To be consistent with the small colour dispersion of U − V, the mass fraction of the secondary burst to the total mass should be less than 10 per cent at the maximum within the most recent 2 Gyr. This result suggests that even if recent galaxy merging has produced some ellipticals, it should not have been accompanied by an intensive starburst, and hence it could not involve large gas-rich systems. The capture of a dwarf galaxy is more likely to explain the dynamical disturbances observed in some elliptical galaxies. The above analysis, based on the U − V, is not compatible with the one based on the line indices, which requires that more than 10 per cent of mass is present in a 2-Gyr-old starburst to cover the full range of the observed Hβ (de Jong &38; Davies). The discrepancy might be partly explained by the internal extinction localized at the region where young stars form. However, considering that the Hβ index might have great uncertainties both in models and in observational data, we basically rely on U − V analysis.

Formation of Boxy and Disky Elliptical Galaxies in Early Dissipative Mergers

We numerically study the dynamical evolution of mergers of gas-rich galaxies, with special emphasis on the effects of star formation upon the appearance of the isophotal shape of the remnant. We find that the rapidity of gas consumption by star formation greatly affects the isophotal shapes of merger remnants. Mergers with gradual star formation are more likely to form elliptical galaxies with disky isophotes, and those with rapid star formation are more likely to form ellipticals that appear to be both boxy and disky depending on the viewing angle of the observer. We furthermore find that both the radial density profile and the compactness of the core of the merger remnant depend on the rapidity of gas consumption by star formation. Our numerical results imply that the isophotal shapes clearly reflect a difference in the history of star formation of elliptical galaxies at the epoch of their formation.