Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Research Articles

Psychometric properties of the Ritvo Autism and Asperger Diagnostic Scale: Revised (RAADS-R) in the Persian language for Iranian adults

Objectives Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) typically manifests in childhood and continues into adulthood. There are very few validated scales for screening ASD during adulthood. This study aimed to measure the psychometric properties of the Ritvo Autism and Asperger Diagnostic Scale: Revised (RAADS-R) among Iranian adults. Methods A sample of 88 autistic individuals and 144 healthy controls were recruited. To establish concurrent validity, the scores on the questionnaire were correlated with the Autism Quotient (AQ) questionnaire. The construct validity of the RAADS-R was evaluated by examining its correlation with Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), CGI (Clinical Global Impression) rating scale, and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. We measured internal consistency using Cronbach’s Alpha, Spearman-Brown, and Guttman Split-Half Coefficients, and test-retest reliability. Results Internal consistency was obtained at 0.91 by Cronbach’s Alpha. The test-retest reliability of the RAADS-R was found to be excellent, with a coefficient of 0.91. A significant relationship between RAADS-R and AQ (r: 0.47), SRS (r: 0.86) and CGI (r: 0.94) was observed proving concurrent and construct validity. A Score of 67 showed optimal sensitivity (0.98) and specificity (0.99) in discriminating between normal and clinical populations. Conclusions Our findings showed favorability of Persian version of RAADS-R in indices of reliability and validity.

Behavioral and Sexual problems in Children with Mild Intellectual Disability: An Observational Study

Abstract Background The cognitive and adaptive functioning deficits are the intellectual disability (ID) hallmark. Children with Intellectual Disability (ID) often display distinct behavioral and sexual problems. Objective To investigate behavioral and sexual problems in children with mild ID (IQ score 50-70) as compared to an age-and sex-matched control group. Patients and Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted on 200 children (100 with mild ID (IQ score 50-70) and 100 controls) aged 6-12 years at Ain Shams University's Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics Clinic. Sociodemographic data were collected using an Arabic-validated Socioeconomic Status Scale. Intellectual ability was assessed with the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and Adaptive behaviors were measured using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS). Behavioral competency and problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Sexual behaviors were evaluated using the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI). Results A higher percentage of children with ID (54%) had working mothers compared to controls (40%, p = 0.047). Fathers of children with ID exhibited higher education levels (p = 0.020). CSBI scores were markedly higher in children with ID (all p-values < 0.001) and CBCL scores were also markedly higher in children with ID (all p-values <0.001). Similarly more ID children were in clinical range for internalizing (p-value <0.001) and externalizing problems (p-value <0.001) of CBCL broadband syndrome. Conclusion Children with mild ID display significant differences in behavioral and sexual problems compared to their controls Identified risk factors offer insight into potential interventions and underline the need for tailored education and support for this demographic.

Adapting Child Development Assessment Tools to the Rural Indian Context.

Child development assessment tests serve many purposes, including educational placement, identifying cognitive weaknesses, and initiating early interventions. Much of the research associated with developmental testing has been conducted in high-income countries, offering limited guidance on adapting these tests to other settings. As part of the first phase of a study exploring the impact of childhood vaccines on cognition and school attainment, we aimed to assess the feasibility of enrolling children from the community, documenting immunization, and conducting child development assessments for children between 18 months and 8 years of age in a rural setting in Haryana, India. To ensure assessments are optimally tailored to the context, child development assessment tests require valid translation and cultural adaptation. This report describes the rigorous seven-step adaptation process we designed for the contextually appropriate adaptation of the following three child development assessment tests: the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-IV, the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale Fifth Ed. for Early Childhood, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV. This process involved translating tests into the local language, back-translating them for accuracy, adapting them to the rural context via several iterations, and field-testing to refine and validate adaptation quality. This adaptation process may be beneficial for other researchers involved in adapting child development assessment tests to other settings. Further, this adaptation process may inform other researchers involved in adapting tests for diverse settings.

A - 46 Relationship between Working Memory and Externalizing Behaviors in Children from a Clinical Population: an Exploration of the Role of Expressive Language

Abstract Objective Externalizing behaviors affect children’s functioning in different domains. Previous studies revealed the impact of working memory, mainly through its role in goal keeping, goal-related search, and response selection. This study explored the role of expressive language in the relationship between working memory and externalizing behaviors in children. Method The data were collected from 50 children at a private practice agency (male: 76%; Age M = 4.16, SD = 1.13). All participants were diagnosed with at least one neurodevelopmental disorder. Their index score on the Externalizing Problems from Behavior Assessment System for Children, 3rd Edition, index score on the Working Memory from Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th Edition, and expressive language subscale score from Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 3rd Edition were collected. A mediation analysis was performed. Results The mediation analysis results showed a significant indirect effect (B = −0.081, 95% CI [−0.172, −0.015]) of working memory on externalizing behaviors through expressive language. It suggested that poorer working memory was associated with less expressive language, which then resulted in more externalizing behaviors. The direct effect between working memory and externalizing behavior was statistically significant (B = −0.331, p < 0.001), indicating that expressive language only partially mediated the relationship between working memory and externalizing behaviors. Conclusions The study provided empirical support for the mediating effect of expresive langaguge on the relationship between working memory and externaizing behaviors in children from a clinical population. It informs that the use of evidence-based interventions on expressive langauge skills might potentially help address externalizing behaviors in children.

Correlation between language and cognitive skills in Egyptian children with reading problems

BackgroundReading problems are the most prevalent type of specific learning disability. Reading problems usually result from phonological deficits; however, it is unclear how much other linguistic abilities are impacted as well.ObjectiveTo study different language parameters and cognitive skills in a group of Egyptian children with reading problems to better understand the difficulties that need to be considered in rehabilitation programs for those children.MethodsA case–control study was conducted on 30 children with reading problems having IQs above 85 and 30 normal control children matched for age and gender (their ages ranged from 7 to 9 years and 11 months). They underwent testing for dyslexia by the Arabic dyslexia assessment test, language evaluation using the Receptive Expressive Arabic Language Scale (REAL scale), and the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, fifth edition.ResultsThere were highly significant correlations between the severity of dyslexia and total language scores, most of REAL scale subtests. Also, highly significant correlations were detected between the severity of dyslexia and the total IQ, verbal IQ, and verbal working memory subtests. The linear regression model revealed a highly significant association between dyslexia and expressive language scaled scores, total language scaled scores, and a significant association with expressive vocabulary and understanding oral instructions subtests of REAL scale. Additionally, a highly significant association has been detected between dyslexia and the verbal working memory subtest of the Stanford-Binet test. Correlations between total language scores and intellectual abilities (total IQ, verbal IQ, and non-verbal IQ) revealed highly significant positive results.ConclusionDeficits in both receptive and expressive language were observed in children with reading problems. Expressive vocabulary, listening comprehension, and verbal working memory subtests are the most affected language and cognitive skills.

Autologous umbilical cord blood infusion for the treatment of autism in young children: A within-subjects open label study on safety (assessed via caregiver report) and efficacy.

This study aimed to document the safety and efficacy of a single infusion of autologous umbilical cord blood (UCB) in 20 autistic children aged 24-72 months. A pre-post treatment within-subjects open label design was used. At T = 0, 6, 12, and 18 months, participants underwent detailed and structured safety evaluations (via caregiver report), Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (Vineland-3), Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SB-5), Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test, Brief Observation of Social Communication Change (BOSCC), Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Behavior Inventory, Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised, Sensory Experience Questionnaire (SEQ-2.1), Child Behavior Checklist, Clinical Global Impression-Severity and Improvement (CGI-I) Scales, and eye-gaze tracking. UCB infusion was conducted at T = 6 months, hence, 0-6 months was the control period, and 6-18 months the follow-up period. Of 20 children recruited, 19 completed the study and 1 was withdrawn due to UCB not meeting quality control criteria for infusion. There were 15 males and 4 females with an overall mean (SD) age of 4.15 (0.62) years. Mean (SD) cell dose administered was 38.16 (9.82) million cells/kg. None suffered serious adverse events although there were mild behavioral side effects and one unit grew coagulase negative staphylococcus from a post-thaw sample. There were no significant differences in Vineland-3, SB-5, BOSCC, and SEQ-2.1 scores at T = 12 and T = 18 months. Twelve participants had T = 18 CGI-I scores of 2-3 (minimally to much improved), seven participants had scores of 4 (no change). Autologous UCB infusion in autistic children is generally safe but not without risks, including that of infection. In this within-subjects study, some children showed global symptom improvements while others showed no change. Stem cell therapies for autism should only be conducted under strict clinical trial conditions with clear risk discussions.

Intelligence Assessment of Children & Youth Benefiting from Psychological-Educational Support System in Poland

This article presents a unique dataset comprising 419,135 intelligence assessment results. The study utilised the Polish adaptation of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 5 during individual diagnostic sessions conducted under natural conditions. The research included children aged 3;0–18;11 of both genders who had been referred to support institutions (psychological-educational counselling centres, post-hospital clinics, hospital departments) by preschools or schools, or voluntarily requested by parents with their consent. The data collection spanned the entire country of Poland from 2018 to 2023. In addition to comprehensive intelligence assessment results, the dataset contains valuable demographic information, enabling in-depth analyses. The dataset’s uniqueness lies in its impressive sample size, encompassing over four hundred thousand observations as well as the utilisation of time-consuming and thorough intelligence assessment procedures in settings that mimic the real world. Moreover, the context of the study is noteworthy, as the participants are individuals benefiting from the publicly - available Polish psychological support system.

In utero aspirin exposure and child neurocognitive development: A propensity score-matched analysis.

To evaluate the association between a short-period, high-dose in utero aspirin exposure and child neurocognitive development. A propensity score-matched analysis of a multicentre prospective cohort study. The US Collaborative Perinatal Project (1959-1976). A total of 50 565 singleton live births with maternal information. We performed a propensity score matching to balance maternal characteristics between women with and without aspirin exposure. Inverse probability-weighted marginal structural models were used to estimate associations between aspirin exposure and child neurocognitive assessments. Child neurocognitive development was assessed using the Bayley Scales at 8 months, the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale at 4 years, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale and Wide-Range Achievement Test (WRAT) at 7 years. Children exposed to aspirin in utero were associated with an 8%-16% reduced risk of having suspect/abnormal or below-average scores in most neurocognitive assessments. A trend of lower risks of having suspect/abnormal or below-average scores was further observed in children with in utero aspirin exposure for more than 7 days, particularly on Bayley Mental (relative risk [RR] 0.82, 95% CI 0.74-0.92), WRAT Reading (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.78-0.98) and WRAT Arithmetic tests (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.66-0.86). This association was mainly observed in the second trimester of pregnancy. In utero aspirin exposure was associated with improved child neurocognitive development in a prospective cohort study. Further studies are warranted to evaluate the impact of long-period and low-dose in utero aspirin exposure on child short- and long-term neurodevelopment.

Cognitive functioning in adults with autism spectrum disorder

Introduction Neuropsychological deficits in areas of Executive Functioning (EF), theory of mind, and central coherence have been well-documented among children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, there remains a significant gap in knowledge with regards to neuropsychological profile in adults with ASD. This study aims to investigate the intellectual functioning and neuropsychological profiles of a clinical population of adults with ASD. Methods This cross-sectional study included 40 available autistic individuals referred to an adult developmental disorders clinic at a hospital between 2021 and 2022. All participants were assessed using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS), Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), Ritvo Autism Asperger Diagnostic Scale-Revised (RAADS-R), and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). Results Individuals with ASD exhibited lower IQ scores across all domains of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, compared to the general population, although the mean IQ scores remained within the normal range. Significant differences were observed in Full Scale IQ, Verbal IQ, Non-Verbal IQ, Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, and Working Memory compared to the general population. Additionally, autistic individuals’ performance on verbal knowledge was higher compared to non-verbal knowledge. No significant correlations were found between the total and subscale scores of verbal and nonverbal IQ and AQ, RAADS-R, and SRS scores. Conclusion Considering the significant impacts of cognitive and executive function on the social and occupational aspects of autistic adults, further investigations in this area are warranted.

Psychological Assessment: Identification, Detection of Potential and Problems of Children with Special Needs at UPTD LDPI, Padang City

So far, the learning strategy implemented in schools is still widespread, providing all students with the same educational treatment and services. These students have different levels of skills, intelligence, interests, and talents. Therefore, early identification is needed to detect children's learning potential and problems. The results of the identification can later be used by teachers in implementing learning processes that suit the characteristics of students. The method used in identification is an intelligence test using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and Culture Fair Intelligence Scale instruments. In contrast, the method used in conveying examination results is lectures and discussions with parents and teachers regarding the characteristics of children with special needs and appropriate services and education. The identification results found that one student (1.56%) was in the immobile category, seven students (10.94%) were in the debilitated category, 13 students (20.31%) were in the borderline category, 15 students (23.44%) were in the low average category, 22 students (34.38%) were in the average category, and six students (9.38%) were in the high average category. This activity had been carried out well. Through discussions and counseling, parents and teachers gained an understanding of treatment and educational services that suit the characteristics of each child. In the future, follow-up activities will likely be related to evaluating learning strategies and student abilities.

Sex-specific associations between placental corticotropin releasing hormone and problem behaviors in childhood

Placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (pCRH) is a neuroactive peptide produced in high concentrations in mid-late pregnancy, during key periods of fetal brain development. Some evidence suggests that higher pCRH exposure during gestation is associated with adverse neurodevelopment, particularly in female offspring. In 858 mother-child dyads from the sociodemographically diverse CANDLE cohort (Memphis, TN), we examined: (1) the slope of pCRH rise in mid-late pregnancy and (2) estimated pCRH at delivery as a measure of cumulative prenatal exposure. When children were 4 years-old, mothers reported on problem behaviors using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and cognitive performance was assessed by trained psychologists using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. We fitted linear regression models examining pCRH in relation to behavioral and cognitive performance measures, adjusting for covariates. Using interaction models, we evaluated whether associations differed by fetal sex, breastfeeding, and postnatal neighborhood opportunity. In the full cohort, log-transformed pCRH measures were not associated with outcomes; however, we observed sex differences in some models (interaction p-values≤0.01). In male offspring, an interquartile (IQR) increase in pCRH slope (but not estimated pCRH at delivery), was positively associated with raw Total (β=3.06, 95%CI: 0.40, 5.72), Internalizing (β=0.89, 95%CI: 0.03, 1.76), and Externalizing (β=1.25, 95%CI: 0.27, 2.22) Problem scores, whereas, in females, all associations were negative (Total Problems: β=−1.99, 95%CI: −3.89, −0.09; Internalizing: β=−0.82, 95%CI: −1.42, −0.23; Externalizing: β=−0.56, 95%CI: −1.34, 0.22). No associations with cognitive performance were observed nor did we observe moderation by breastfeeding or postnatal neighborhood opportunity. Our results provide further evidence that prenatal pCRH exposure may impact subsequent child behavior in sex-specific ways, however in contrast to prior studies suggesting adverse impacts in females, steeper mid-gestation pCRH rise was associated with more problem behaviors in males, but fewer in females.

Cognitive and social adaptation in autism spectrum disorder: A prospective cohort study.

During development, children face a number of demands and cognitive, behavioral, and social challenges necessary for growth. Cognitive skills make individuals competent and allow them to interact with their environment. To identify the cognitive skills that promote better social insertion in children with autism spectrum disorder within 12 months. Prospective cohort study. In this study, 21 children aged 3-12 years were assessed, and their mothers were interviewed. Children were enrolled in regular or special autistic schools. Twelve months after the first assessment, the same children participated in the second assessment. In individual interviews, mothers provided data by answering the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale. Each child was assessed individually using the fourth edition of the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale 4th Edition. In the first assessment, the Stanford Binet areas and total scores correlated with the communication domains, daily life abilities, socialization, and total score of the Vineland Scale. After 12 months, a correlation was observed between the Stanford Binet areas and the total and communication domains, daily life abilities, socialization, motor abilities, and total score on the Vineland Scale. Logic mathematics and memory promote better social insertion in children with autism spectrum disorder. General cognitive ability promotes communication.

Research on the Pathogenesis of Cognitive and Neurofunctional Impairments in Patients with Noonan Syndrome: The Role of Rat Sarcoma-Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathway Gene Disturbances.

Noonan syndrome (NS) is one of the most common genetic conditions inherited mostly in an autosomal dominant manner with vast heterogeneity in clinical and genetic features. Patients with NS might have speech disturbances, memory and attention deficits, limitations in daily functioning, and decreased overall intelligence. Here, 34 patients with Noonan syndrome and 23 healthy controls were enrolled in a study involving gray and white matter volume evaluation using voxel-based morphometry (VBM), white matter connectivity measurements using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). Fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) probability distributions were calculated. Cognitive abilities were assessed using the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales. Reductions in white matter connectivity were detected using DTI in NS patients. The rs-fMRI revealed hyper-connectivity in NS patients between the sensorimotor network and language network and between the sensorimotor network and salience network in comparison to healthy controls. NS patients exhibited decreased verbal and nonverbal IQ compared to healthy controls. The assessment of the microstructural alterations of white matter as well as the resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) analysis in patients with NS may shed light on the mechanisms responsible for cognitive and neurofunctional impairments.

Does exposure to nature make children more intelligent? Analysis in Polish children with and without ADHD

Previous studies have shown that exposure to nature and physical activity (PA) may be associated with higher intelligence in children. We examined whether there is an association between lifelong exposure to greenspace and bluespace and intelligence in children aged 10–13 with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and whether PA mediates this association. The sample (N = 714) was collected within the NeuroSmog case-control study, where children with (N = 206) and without ADHD (N = 508) were recruited from 18 towns in Southern Poland. Nature exposure was estimated as the sum of the z-scores of the objective and perceived measures. Objective greenspace exposure was defined as the percentage of grass and tree cover in 500 m and 1 km buffers around lifelong residential addresses, respectively. Objective bluespace exposure was defined as the percentage of water cover in 500 m and 1 km buffers. Perceived greenspace/bluespace was measured as the parent-rated availability, quality, and use of greenspace/bluespace. Intelligence was assessed using the Polish version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th edition (SB5). SB5 Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Nonverbal IQ, Verbal IQ, five factor and ten subtest scores were analysed as outcomes. The associations between nature and IQ scores were assessed by linear regressions separately for cases and controls, adjusting the models for sex, parental education, and urbanicity. Structural equation modeling was implemented to test whether PA mediated the association between nature and intelligence. None of the greenspace or bluespace measures were consistently associated with intelligence. PA was not found to be a mediator. We did not find evidence that higher lifelong nature exposure is associated with higher intelligence in Polish schoolchildren with or without ADHD. This casts doubts on whether exposure to nature has relevant influence on IQ.

Does pre-school developmental assessment agree with later intellectual assessment? A retrospective cohort study.

This study sought to assess the association between early developmental assessment of toddlers with idiopathic global developmental delay (GDD) and their later intelligence test scores. Toddlers with idiopathic GDD attending a community clinic over a 6-year period were assessed initially using the Griffiths Mental Development Scales - Extended Revised version (GMDS-ER) and later completing formal intelligence testing using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - 5th Edition (SB5) at age 4-6 years. Spearman's correlation was used to assess the association of quotient scores across the tools. The composite quotient (GQ) and the subscale quotients of GMDS-ER were correlated with the full-scale IQ (FSIQ), verbal and non-verbal IQ scores from the SB5. Thirty of 153 children assessed at the clinic were eligible for the study. The correlation between GMDS-ER GQ and later SB5 FSIQ was strong (r = 0.86, P < 0.001). The subscales' associations were moderate to strong (0.48-0.71). Eighty-six percent (86%) of children with delay on GMDS-ER GQ were found later to be in the impaired category based on the FSIQ of the SB5. There was a strong association between toddlers' early developmental quotients and later IQ scores for children with idiopathic GDD, though agreement between early GDD diagnoses and later intellectual disability is not absolute. Individualised care is needed around prognostic advice and recommendations to caregivers and families in the early years, so they may effectively plan for interventions, supports and later reassessment to optimise their child's development and learning.

Vocabulary and Syntax Reception in Children with Down Syndrome

Introduction: Intellectual disability and specific cognition in down syndrome (DS) affect language development and processing. We assessed vocabulary and syntax reception among children with DS with typically developed (TD) Persian-speaking Iranian children. We also investigated the association between vocabulary and syntax reception in children with DS.&#x0D; Materials and Methods: Using the Stanford–Binet intelligence scales test, 18 TD children (4-6 years old) and 18 DS children were matched based on non-verbal mental age. Vocabulary reception was assessed using the receptive picture vocabulary test (RPVT) and syntax reception by the Persian syntax comprehension test.&#x0D; Results: Mean total vocabulary reception was lower in children with DS (P&lt;0.001). Syntax reception was also impaired in children with DS compared to the normal values of the test. Among children with DS, vocabulary reception was positively correlated with syntax reception. Every unit increase in total vocabulary reception score was associated with 0.08 (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.04-0.12) improvement in syntax score in children with DS.&#x0D; Conclusion: Vocabulary and syntax reception in DS children, especially complex syntax structures, was impaired. The observed association between vocabulary and syntax reception shows that vocabulary reception improvement might result in progressing syntax reception in children with DS.

Family Functioning Style as a Predictor of the Quality of Cognitive Functioning of Primary School Students With ADHD

Objective: This study aimed to specify whether family communication and satisfaction are predictors of a child’s executive functions and whether attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) severity lies in the pathway between these variables. Method: Two hundred Polish children with ADHD, aged 10 to 13, were tested using Conners 3, the PU1 Battery of Cognitive Tests and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition (SB5). Parents filled out the FACES IV-SOR questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypotheses. Results: The quality of family communication and satisfaction did not predict executive functioning in children with ADHD, and ADHD severity did not play a mediating role neither in boys or in girls. Intelligent quotient was the only predictor of executive functioning in the group of boys. Conclusion: These results contrast with those of previous studies that have shown the existence of similar associations in other cultural contexts.

BDNF Val66Met Polymorphism: Suggested Genetic Involvement in Some Children with Learning Disorder

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an essential role in neuronal survival, especially in areas responsible for memory and learning. The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism has been described as a cognitive modifier in people with neuropsychiatric disorders. BDNF levels have been found to be low in children with learning disorder (LD). However, Val66Met polymorphism has not been studied before in such children. The aim was to investigate the presence of BDNF val66Met polymorphism in a group of children with specific LD and to verify its impact on their cognitive abilities. The participants in this cross-sectional study (N = 111) were divided into two groups: one for children with LD and the other for neurotypical (NT) ones. Children with LD (N = 72) were diagnosed according to the DSM-5 criteria. Their abilities were evaluated using Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale, dyslexia assessment test, Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, and phonological awareness test. Genotyping of BDNF Val66Met polymorphism was performed for all participants. The frequency of the Met allele was 26% among children with LD (6 children had homozygous, 26 had heterozygous genotype). The percentage of participants with deficits in reading, writing, and phonemic segmentation was higher in Met allele carriers when compared to non-Met allele carriers in LD group. The frequency of Met allele among NT children was 3.85% (0 homozygous, 3 children had heterozygous genotype) (p = 0.00001). The high frequency of Val66Met polymorphism among children with LD introduces the BDNF gene as a genetic modifier of learning performance in some children who manifest specific learning disorder (developmental dyslexia).

Sensitivity of the NIH Toolbox to Detect Cognitive Change in Individuals With Intellectual and Developmental Disability.

Individuals with intellectual disability (ID) experience protracted cognitive development compared with typical youth. Sensitive measurement of cognitive change in this population is a critical need for clinical trials and other intervention studies, but well-validated outcome measures are scarce. This study's aim was to evaluate the sensitivity of the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB) to detect developmental changes in groups with ID-fragile X syndrome (FXS), Down syndrome (DS), and other ID (OID)-and to provide further support for its use as an outcome measure for treatment trials. We administered the NIHTB-CB and a reference standard cross-validation measure (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition [SB5]) to 256 individuals with FXS, DS, and OID (ages 6-27 years). After 2 years of development, we retested 197 individuals. Group developmental changes in each cognitive domain of the NIHTB-CB and SB5 were assessed using latent change score models, and 2-year growth was evaluated at 3 age points (10, 16, and 22 years). Overall, effect sizes of growth measured by the NIHTB-CB tests were comparable with or exceeded those of the SB5. The NIHTB-CB showed significant gains in almost all domains in OID at younger ages (10 years), with continued gains at 16 years and stability in early adulthood (22 years). The FXS group showed delayed gains in attention and inhibitory control compared with OID. The DS group had delayed gains in receptive vocabulary compared with OID. Unlike the other groups, DS had significant growth in early adulthood in 2 domains (working memory and attention/inhibitory control). Notably, each group's pattern of NIHTB-CB growth across development corresponded to their respective pattern of SB5 growth. The NIHTB-CB is sensitive to developmental changes in individuals with ID. Comparison with levels and timing of growth on the cross-validation measure shows that the NIHTB-CB has potential to identify meaningful trajectories across cognitive domains and ID etiologies. Sensitivity to change within the context of treatment studies and delineation of clinically meaningful changes in NIHTB-CB scores, linked to daily functioning, must be established in future research to evaluate the battery more completely as a key outcome measure.

Dyslexia with and without Irlen syndrome: A study of influence on abilities and brain-derived neurotrophic factor level.

The presence of comorbid Irlen syndrome (IS) in children with developmental dyslexia (DD) may have an impact on their reading and cognitive abilities. Furthermore, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was reported to be expressed in brain areas involved in cognitive and visual processing. The aim of this study was to evaluate some cognitive abilities of a group of dyslexic children with IS and to measure and compare the plasma BDNF level to dyslexic children without IS and neurotypical (NT) children. The participants were 60 children with DD (30 in the DD + IS group; 30 in the DD group) and 30 NT children. The Irlen reading perceptual scale, the Stanford Binet intelligence scale, 4th ed, the dyslexia assessment test, and the Illinois test of psycholinguistic abilities were used. The BDNF level was measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. One-minutewriting and visual closure deficits were more prevalent, while phonemic segmentation deficits were less prevalent in the DD + IS group compared to the DD group. The BDNF level in the DD groups was lower than that in NT children (p < 0.001). Some reading and non-reading tasks were influenced by the presence of a coexisting IS. The reduced BDNF level could play a role in the deficits noticed in the abilities of children with DD.