Standard Stringency Research Articles

Policy-Induced Innovation in Clean Technologies: Evidence from the Car Market

This article tests the effects of fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards on the direction of innovation, in particular on breakthrough technologies in the automotive industry. We develop an intuitive measure of standard stringency that captures the policy’s most important features for the decision as to whether or not to innovate. To test the role of these standards relative to prices and taxes, we construct a firm-level panel of patents in clean and dirty automotive technologies for the years 2000-2016. Our results indicate that standards are a very robust driver inducing clean innovation, whereas taxes also seem to play a role but prices (net of taxes) do not. This effect is driven by patenting for breakthrough technologies, in particular electric vehicle and hydrogen fuel cell technologies. We find no evidence that these policies negatively impact dirty innovation.

Most stringent test of independence for time series

Evaluating the relationship between two variables has been and will remain the core objective of practitioners in social sciences especially in economics. After the criticism of the use of Karl Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation (PPMCC) by Yule (1926), several tests of independence for time series have been developed. This study aims at conducting a comparative study of these tests of independence for time series by using a general data generating process. We have made use of a Monte Carlo simulation study which compares these tests through the standard stringency criterion as discussed in Asad Zaman (1996). Among eleven tests of independence, two tests have been found to be in the best category, one test in mediocre and the remaining eight tests in worst category according to stringency criterion. Results have shown that the tests based on the idea of pre-whitening the series’ first and then to apply correlation coefficient have produced better results.

Assessing the potential additionality of certification by the Round table on Responsible Soybeans and the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

Multi-stakeholder roundtables offering certification programs are promising voluntary governance mechanisms to address sustainability issues associated with international agricultural supply chains. Yet, little is known about whether roundtable certifications confer additionality, the benefits of certification beyond what would be expected from policies and practices currently in place. Here, we examine the potential additionality of the Round table on Responsible Soybeans (RTRS) and the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) in mitigating conversion of native vegetation to cropland. We develop a metric of additionality based on business as usual land cover change dynamics and roundtable standard stringency relative to existing policies. We apply this metric to all countries with RTRS (n = 8) and RSPO (n = 12) certified production in 2013–2014, as well as countries that have no certified production but are among the top ten global producers in terms of soy (n = 2) and oil palm (n = 2). We find RSPO and RTRS both have substantially higher levels of stringency than existing national policies except in Brazil and Uruguay. In regions where these certification standards are adopted, the mean estimated rate of tree cover conversion to the target crop is similar for both standards. RTRS has higher mean relative stringency than the RSPO, yet RSPO countries have slightly higher enforcement levels. Therefore, mean potential additionality of RTRS and RSPO is similar across regions. Notably, countries with the highest levels of additionality have some adoption. However, with extremely low adoption rates (0.41% of 2014 global harvested area), RTRS likely has lower impact than RSPO (14%). Like most certification programs, neither roundtable is effectively targeting smallholder producers. To improve natural ecosystem protection, roundtables could target adoption to regions with low levels of environmental governance and high rates of forest-to-cropland conversion.

Prehybridization/Hybridization Standard Stringency Mix

Prehybridization/Hybridization Standard Stringency Mix

Northern blots: capillary transfer of RNA from agarose gels and filter hybridization using standard stringency conditions.

In this protocol, an RNA sample, fractionated by gel electrophoresis, is transferred from the gel onto a membrane by capillary transfer. Short-wave UV light is used to fix the transferred RNA to the membrane. The membrane is then pretreated to block nonspecific probe-binding sites, and hybridization of the immobilized RNA to a (32)P-labeled DNA or RNA probe specific for the mRNA of interest is performed. Finally, the membrane is washed and subjected to autoradiography or phosphorimaging. Because exposure to UV cross-links the RNA to the membrane, the membrane can be stripped and hybridized with other probes. The procedure is suitable for detecting poly(A)(+)-selected mRNA or mRNA in total cellular RNA if the target transcript is relatively abundant. Using DNA or RNA probes labeled to 1 × 10(8)-10 × 10(8) cpm/µg, it should be possible to detect ∼5 pg of a specific RNA.

Field testing of new-technology ambient air ozone monitors

Multibillion-dollar strategies control ambient air ozone (O3) levels in the United States, so it is essential that the measurements made to assess compliance with regulations be accurate. The predominant method employed to monitor O3 is ultraviolet (UV) photometry. Instruments employ a selective manganese dioxide or heated silver wool “scrubber” to remove O3 to provide a zero reference signal. Unfortunately, such scrubbers remove atmospheric constituents that absorb 254-nm light, causing measurement interference. Water vapor also interferes with the measurement under some circumstances. We report results of a 3-month field test of two new instruments designed to minimize interferences (2B Technologies model 211; Teledyne-API model 265E) that were operated in parallel with a conventional Thermo Scientific model 49C O3 monitor. The field test was hosted by the Houston Regional Monitoring Corporation (HRM). The model 211 photometer scrubs O3 with excess nitric oxide (NO) generated in situ by photolysis of added nitrous oxide (N2O) to provide a reference signal, eliminating the need for a conventional O3 scrubber. The model 265E analyzer directly measures O3–NO chemiluminescence from added excess NO to quantify O3 in the sample stream. Extensive quality control (QC) and collocated monitoring data are assessed to evaluate potential improvements to the accuracy of O3 compliance monitoring. Implications: Two new-technology ozone monitors were compared with a conventional monitor under field conditions. Over 3 months the conventional monitor reported more exceedances of the current standard than the new instruments, which could potentially result in an area being misjudged as “nonattainment.” Instrument drift can affect O3 data accuracy, and the same degree of drift has a proportionally greater compliance effect as standard stringency is increased. Enhanced data quality assurance and data adjustment may be necessary to achieve the improved accuracy required to judge compliance with tighter standards.

Standardization of baseline and additionality determination under the CDM

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project developers have long complained about the complexities of project-specific baseline setting and the vagaries of additionality determination. In response to this, the CDM Executive Board took bold steps towards the standardization of CDM methodologies, culminating in the approval of guidelines for the establishment of performance standards in November 2011. The guidelines specify a performance standard stringency level for both baseline and additionality of 80% for several priority sectors and 90% for all other sectors. However, an analysis of 14 large-scale CDM methodologies that use performance standard approaches challenges this top-down approach to the performance standard design. An appropriate performance standard stringency level strongly depends on sector and technology characteristics. A single stringency level for baseline and additionality determination is appropriate only for greenfield projects, but not for retrofit ones. Overly simple, highly aggregated performance standards are unlikely to ensure high environmental integrity, and difficult questions regarding stringency and updating frequency will eventually have to be addressed on a rather disaggregated level. A careful balance between data requirements and the practicability of performance standards is essential because the heavy data requirements of the existing performance standard methodologies have been the key barrier to their actual implementation. Policy relevance CDM regulators have been pushed by many stakeholders to standardize baseline setting and eliminate project-specific additionality determination. At first glance, performance standards seem to provide the perfect solution for both tasks. However, a one-size-fits-all political decision – e.g. the average of the top 20% performers as enshrined in the Marrakech Accords – is inappropriate. Substantial disaggregation of performance standards is required both technologically and geographically in order to limit over- and under-crediting and close loopholes for non-additional projects. As a lack of reliable and complete data has been and will be a key bottleneck for the development of performance standards, international support for data collection will be indispensable, but costly, and time-consuming. Empirically driven, techno-economic assessments of performance standard stringency levels must be the central task of the future work on standardized methodologies, and should not be sidelined by perceived needs of policy makers to take bold decisions under time pressures.

Not seeing the forest for the trees? The environmental effectiveness of forest certification in Sweden

Forest certification can be conceived as one of many rapidly growing non-state market driven (NSMD) modes of governance. The environmental effectiveness of forest certification is oftentimes evaluated by indicators such as stringency of standards, degree of participation by key stakeholders, certified area, etc. In political science, forest certification as an NSMD governance arrangement is usually evaluated in terms of the quality of the decision-making procedures (input legitimacy) rather than for its problem solving capacity, i.e. its environmental performance or effectiveness. We conceptualize environmental effectiveness as a function of a standard's environmental stringency and the area covered by the standard, the latter dependent on the degree of social acceptance. Accordingly, the environmental effectiveness of different certification schemes ought to be evaluated taking both the standard stringency and the area certified into account. The forest certification process in Sweden illustrates how forestry history and regional differences affect the development, acceptance and adoption of different certification schemes. Industrial and Northern forestry owners favour the NGO led Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards whereas Southern small-scale private forest owners preferred to develop an alternative scheme the Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). We demonstrate that there is a bifurcated geographical coverage of the two certification schemes along a north–south divide coupled with a similarity in standard stringency and a high degree of acceptance in their different areas of dominance. Both forest certification schemes display a similar degree of environmental effectiveness — but in different parts of the country and for different types of ownership.

The financial impact of standard stringency: An event study of successive generations of the ISO 9000 standard

While ISO 9000 has been shown to improve internal metrics of firm performance, external measurements may be unaffected. This paper examines the economic value of successive generations of the ISO 9000 standard by assessing the equity returns of 204 firms certified between 1999 and 2002. This study also examines the economic effects of ISO 9001:2000 versus the superseded 1994 standards. The complete sample experienced no significant changes in stock price. The market reaction to ISO 9001:2000 certification is significantly more positive than the reaction to ISO 9000:1994 registration.

Familial whole-arm translocations (1;19), (9;13), and (12;21): a review of 101 constitutional exchanges

We report here on 3 familial whole-arm translocations (WATs), namely the 8th instance of t(1;19)(p10;q10) and 2 novel exchanges: t(9;13)(p10;q10) and t(12;21)(p10;q10). The exchanges (1;19) and (12;21) were ascertained through a balanced carrier, whereas the t(9;13) was first diagnosed in a boy with a trisomy 9p syndrome and der(9p13p). Results of FISH analyses with the appropriate ?-satellite probes were as follows. Family 1, t(1;19): the D1Z5 probe gave a strong signal on both the normal chromosome 1 and the der(1q19p) as well as a weak signal on the der(1p19q). Family 2, t(9;13): the centromere-9 alphoid and D13Z1/D21Z1 probes under standard stringency gave no signal on the der(9p13p) in both the proband and a carrier brother, whereas the der(9q13q) was labelled only with the centromere-9 alphoid repeat in the latter; yet, this probe under low stringency revealed a residual amount of alphoid DNA on the der(9p13p) in the carrier. Family 3, t(12;21): the D12Z3 probe gave a signal on the normal chromosome 12 and the der(12p21q), whereas the D13Z1/D21Z1 repeat labelled the der(12q21p), the normal chromosome 21, and both chromosomes 13. Out of 101 WATs compiled here, 73 are distinct exchanges, including 32 instances between chromosomes with common alphoid repeats. Moreover, 7/9 of recurrent WATs involved chromosomes from the same alphoid family. Thus constitutional WATs appear to recur more frequently than other reciprocal exchanges, often involve chromosomes with common alphoid repeats, and can mostly be accounted for the great homology in alphoid DNA that favours mispairing and illegitimate nonhomologous recombination.

Genome differentiation by GISH in interspecific and intergeneric hybrids of tomato and related nightshades.

We employed genomic in situ hybridization to analyze the chromosomal constitution and pairing of interspecific and intergeneric hybrids involving cultivated tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and two related wild nightshade species, Solanum lycopersicoides and S. sitiens. Using standard stringency conditions, the tomato genome was readily distinguished from that of the two nightshades, whereas the latter were only distinguishable under increased stringency. These observations indicate a more distant phylogenetic relationship between L. esculentum and the Solanum group, and suggest S. lycopersicoides and S. sitiens share a high degree of sequence homology. Chromosomal associations during meiosis of interspecific and intergeneric hybrids were consistent with these relationships: chromosomes of F1 L. esculentum x S. lycopersicoides and F1 L. esculentum x S. sitiens hybrids frequently formed univalents during diakinesis. In contrast, F1 S. lycopersicoides x S. sitiens hybrids showed complete bivalent formation. L. esculentum x S. sitiens hybrids, including the F1 plants, a monosomic addition, and an allotetraploid, showed lower frequencies of pairing between homeologous chromosomes than the corresponding L. esculentum x S. lycopersicoides genotypes. A trigenomic 2n + 14 hybrid, with 12 extra chromosomes from S. sitiens and 2 from S. lycopersicoides, displayed mostly homologous chromosome associations. The distribution of rDNA genes appeared similar in the three genomes.

No Conserved Homoeologous Regions Found in the Sugar Beet Genome

Whether amserved hooIoeoIogons regions emt in the sugar­ beet (Belli vulgaris L) genome was investigated by RFLP anal­ ys& Clones from a sugarbeet Pst I library were hybridized to genomic DNA at standard and low stringency. The nwnber of loci detected by each cIooe was determined by ewIuatioo of RFLP band patterm in segregating Fl populations. Two sepa­ nne experiments were canied out: 1) A toCaI of505 clones that had given me to simple band paUerns OIl scnming bkMs and been used as RFLP probes at standard stringency in a previ­ oudy reported RFLP mapping project were re-ewluated for their DNA sequence copy nmnber. The 43 clones for which an eDCt oopy number mold not be determined were re-anaIysed atstandard stringency in a different F 1 population. In addition, the DNA sequence copy number for 50 clones that showed more complex band patterns on screening blots was deter­ mined by RFLP anaIysh at standard stringency. 2) The DNA sequence copy nmnber of 136 selected clones, evenly dW­ tributed over the pnMomly reported RFLP map, ~ deter­ mined at low stringency. The two experiments revealed one du­ plicated sequence at standard sbingency and one additional duplicated sequence at low stringency. Fm1be1'lDOl'e, 475 oftile dooes were coofinned at standard stringency and 94 at low stringency as being singIe-copy sequences. The dODes dis-­tributed randomly over the nine linkage groups of sugarbeet. 100 two duplicated sequences identified mapped to different regions and were SIIITUUIIded by singIe-aJpy ~ Thm, no major hooIoeoIogons regions in the sugarbeet genome were revealed.

A soluble multimeric recombinant CD2 protein identifies CD48 as a low affinity ligand for human CD2: divergence of CD2 ligands during the evolution of humans and mice.

To search for possible ligands of CD2 distinct from CD58 (lymphocyte function-associated antigen 3), we have produced a soluble pentameric CD2-immunoglobulin (Ig) fusion protein (spCD2) linking the 182-amino acid human CD2 extracellular segment with CH2-CH3-CH4 domains of human IgM heavy chain, thus enhancing the micromolar affinity of the CD2 monomer through multimeric interaction. Using quantitative immunofluorescence and standard stringency wash conditions, we observed that the binding of spCD2 to human B lymphoblastoid JY cells and red blood cells is virtually inhibited by anti-CD58 TS2/9 monoclonal antibody, even though these cells express levels of CD48 and CD59 comparable to CD58. Consistent with these results, spCD2 did not show any binding to Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells transfected with human CD48 or CD59. However, binding studies on CD48-, CD58-, or CD59-transfected CHO cells with spCD2 under low stringency wash conditions revealed that human CD48 is a low affinity ligand of human CD2 compared with CD58 (Kd approximately 10(-4) vs. approximately 10(-6) M, respectively). The findings are noteworthy given that in the murine system CD48 is the major ligand for CD2. No detectable binding was observed to CD59-transfected CHO cells despite a report suggesting that CD59 may bind to the human CD2 adhesion domain. Importantly, in cell-cell adhesion assays between CD2+ Jurkat T cells and CD48- or CD59-transfected CHO cells, there was no conjugate formation, whereas binding of Jurkat T cells to CD58-transfected CHO cells was readily detected. Collectively, our findings provide evidence for a conservation of the CD2-CD48 interaction in the human species that may be of limited, if any, functional significance. Given the importance of the CD2-CD48 interaction in the murine system and CD2-CD58 interaction in humans, it would appear that there has been a divergence of functional CD2 ligands during the evolution of humans and mice.

Isolation and chromosomal localization of the human glutathione peroxidase gene

We have isolated cDNA clones for the gene, termed GPX1, encoding the major human selenoprotein, glutathione peroxidase. Sequence analysis confirmed previous findings that the unusual amino acid selenocysteine is encoded by the opal terminator codon UGA. Southern blot analysis of human genomic DNA with the GPX1 cDNA showed that restriction endonucleases without sites in the probe sequence produced three hybridizing bands at standard stringency, diminishing to one strongly and one weakly hybridizing band at high stringency. In situ hybridization localized the human GPX1 gene to a single site on chromosome 3, at region 3q11–13.1. Thus, three genomic sites bear sequence homology to the GPX1 cDNA, and the one most homologous maps to 3q11–13.1.

Genomic heterogeneity among human and nonhuman strains of hepatitis A virus

Cloned cDNA probes derived from the P1 and P2 regions of the genome of HM175 virus, a reference strain of human hepatitis A virus (HAV), failed to hybridize under standard stringency criteria with RNA from PA21 and PA33 viruses, two epizootiologically related HAV strains recovered from naturally infected New World owl monkeys. Hybridization of these probes to PA21 RNA was only evident under reduced stringency conditions. However, cDNA representing the 5' nontranslated region of the HM175 genome hybridized equally to HM175 and PA21 RNA under standard stringency conditions, while a probe derived from the 3' 1,400 bases of the genome yielded a reduced hybridization signal with PA21 RNA. In contrast, no differences could be discerned between HM175 virus and three other HAV strains of human origin (GR8, LV374, and MS1) in any region of the genome, unless increased stringency conditions were used. These results suggest that PA21 and PA33 are unique among HAV isolates and may represent a virus native to the owl monkey. Despite extremely poor homology within the P1 region, which encodes capsid polypeptides, monoclonal antibody analysis confirmed that the immunodominant neutralization epitopes of HAV were highly conserved between HM175 and PA21 viruses. Furthermore, experimental challenge of the owl monkey with successive PA33 and HM175 inocula confirmed a high but incomplete degree of cross-protection. Only one of six monkeys previously infected with PA33 developed recurrent hepatitis 28 days after intravenous HM175 challenge, while none of six monkeys previously infected with HM175 had demonstrable hepatitis following PA33 challenge. These data provide molecular evidence for the existence of HAV strains unique to nonhuman primate species and indicate that strict conservation of antigenic function may accompany substantial genetic divergence in HAV.

Analysis of chromosome V and theILV1 gene from Saccharomyces carlsbergensis

Chromosome V of the Saccharomyces carlsbergensis lager yeast strain 244, a yeast not amenable to tetrad analysis, was analysed genetically in S. cerevisiae genetic standard strains. This was achieved by crossing meiotic progeny of the lager yeast with S. cerevisiae strains carryingkar1 as well as the chromosome V markerscan1, ura3, his1, ilv1, andrad3. From the transitory heterokaryons formed we selected strains retaining the characteristics of the recipient strain but having become prototrophic for uracil, histidine, and isoleucine. The resulting strains were disomic for chromosome V, having acquired a chromosome V from S. carlsbergensis in addition to the normal S. cerevisiae chromosome complement (chromosome addition strains). They were of two classes: In one class the transferred chromosome hardly recombines with the S. cerevisiae chromosome V in the regionCAN1-RAD3, which covers almost the entire known map. In the other class, the transferred chromosome recombined at normal levels. We conclude that S. carlsbergensis harbors two structurally different chromosomes V; one being homologous and one homoeologous to the S. cerevisiae chromosome. By use of theCAN1 locus, strains were selected which by mitotic chromosome loss had their normal chromosome V substituted by either the homologous or the homoeologous S. carlsbergensis chromosome, showing that these chromosomes are fully functional in S. cerevisiae. Tetrad analysis of the chromosome substitution strains confirmed the very different genetic behavior of the two S. carlsbergensis chromosomes V. In spite of the almost complete absence of recombination between the homoeologous chromosome and the S. cerevisiae chromosome, disjunction at meiosis appears normal, as indicated by high spore viability.Genomic Southern hybridizations with the probesCAN1, URA3, CYC7, andILV1 could not detect any nucleotide sequence differences between these loci on the recombining S. carlsbergensis chromosome and the S. cerevisiae alleles. Under standard stringency (68°C, 0.1×SSC), hybridization of the probes to DNA from the strain with the homoeologous chromosome was only observed in the case ofILV1, where weak hybridization was found, indicating a considerable difference in nucleotide sequence.To further study the extent of nucleotide sequence inhomology, the two differentILV1 genes of S. carlsbergensis were cloned in λ vectors. Mapping of 16 restriction enzyme sites showed identity between the allele located on the recombining chromosome and theILV1 gene of S. cerevisiae. The nucleotide sequence of theILV1 gene of the non-recombining chromosome was by restriction site mapping found to be very different from that of the S. cerevisiae allele.