Standard Anthropological Methods Research Articles

Sex estimation using long bones in the largest burial site of the Copper Age: Linear discriminant analysis and random forest

Sex estimation of the individuals in a sample is fundamental for any bioarchaeological study to define a particular demographic assemblage or to classify isolated remains. Long bones are an excellent alternative for sex estimation when the most dimorphic anatomical parts are not preserved or are highly altered. Here we propose a set of discriminant functions and classification models to estimate the sex of prehistoric individuals using linear discriminant analysis and machine learning approaches. Different osteometric variables were taken from the humeri, ulnae, radii, femurs and tibias of a sample of 109 articulated skeletons buried in the collective tomb of Camino del Molino (Region of Murcia, SE-Spain), dated to the 3rd millennium BC. Sex was estimated based on standard anthropological methods and ancient DNA analysis of a control sample. Fifty-two discriminant functions with prediction thresholds higher than 0.8 on the ROC curve were obtained using independent (22) and combined variables (30). The best LDA models for sex prediction were those based on proximal epiphyseal widths or their combination with other variables, reaching values close to 0.98 on the ROC curve. The random forest-based model obtained an accuracy of 0.94 and confirmed the importance of epiphyseal widths in sex classification. This analysis is more comprehensive than univariate LDA, as it allows for ranking the importance of bones in sex discrimination and considers correlations between long bones rather than treating them as independent observations. In contrast, applying LDA to each bone makes it easier to predict the sex of other coeval collections that do not have such a complete sample. This work aims to overcome the scarcity of methods that can be applied to sex estimation of the large volume of isolated remains from Camino del Molino and for other Mediterranean skeletal series from the Late Prehistory with high biological affinity and that share similar environmental conditions.

CT-Analysis and Facial Reconstruction of Children Mummy from Cerro La Horca (Barranca District, Peru)

The aim of the study was a paleoradiological analysis of one of the few completely preserved pre-Columbian child mummies from the Barranca Valley region. The goal also included an attempt to reconstruction of the antemortem appearance of the face. The mummy comes from the pre-Columbian cemetery of Cerro la Horca, located in the Fortaleza River Valley. This cemetery has been subjected to systematic looting over the years. The activities of grave robbers resulted not only in the destruction of grave contexts and material culture relics, but also in the destruction of the bodies of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the valley buried in the cemetery. The examined mummy, to our knowledge, is the only completely preserved body from this archaeological site. The analysis used conventional computed tomography, as well as standard anthropological methods and facial reconstruction techniques. The age at the time of the death was estimated at 2 to 3 years. The light color of a child’s hair suggests the presence of protein deficits known as kwashiorkor. The condition is most common after weaning and switching to carbohydrate-rich foods. The facial reconstruction performed allowed the reconstruction of the child’s life-like appearance and is the first reconstruction made for mummified remains from the area.

Preserving Cultural Identity: A Study Among The Tai Phake Community of Dibrugarh District, Assam

Culture is the most distinctive feature of human being. It consists of belief, practices, tradition and all the habits shared by mankind. Each tribe and ethnic group has their own culture through which their identity is reflected. Now- a- day Anthropologists are more interested to study the ethnic culture to preserve the indigenous identity. Tai Phake is one of the important Tai groups of Assam who have migrated from Men Mau of South China, across Myanmar and then Pat Kai Hills and then entered Assam in 1775 and at present they settled down at Upper Assam. Tai Phake community have rich culture heritage. They have their own belief and practices, tradition, religion, language, habits etc., because of which they have unique cultural identity. In order to observe their cultural traits and to study the uniqueness of their cultural life a study has been done among the Tai Phake community of Namphake village, Dibrugarh District of Assam. The standard anthropological methods such as observation, interview and case study are used to enrich the data.

Prevalence and distribution of ossification of the ligamenta flava in a 16th–18th century skeletal population sample from Poland

ObjectiveThis study aimed to determine the prevalence of the ossification of the ligamenta flava (OLF) among skeletal remains from Poland. Materials and methods124 skeletons aged 25 years and older were analyzed. The presence and size of OLF were observed macroscopically. OLF was recorded at the cranial and caudal attachment sites of each vertebra. The following factors were analyzed: age at death, sex, and presence of other spondyloarthropathies. ResultsThe crude prevalence of OLF in the analyzed series was 68.55 %. OLF was located most frequently in the lower thoracic spine. A statistically significant relationship was observed between the presence of OLF and age at death. OLF coincided with degenerative spondyloarthropathies of the thoracolumbar spine. ConclusionsThe results of this study indicate that OLF was not a rare condition in past populations of European ancestry. Analysis of OLF prevalence in skeletal materials can contribute to reconstruction of the conditions and lifestyles of past people. SignificanceThis study shed new light on the prevalence of OLF and provides information on the variability of OLF in past European populations. The evaluation of the prevalence of OLF represents an important contribution to the field of paleopathology in understanding disease changes in prehistoric and historic human populations. LimitationsThe analyzed material came from unknown populations without demographic data. Sex and age at death were assessed using standard anthropological methods. Suggestions for further researchIt is important to understand the influence of sociocultural factors and physical activity patterns on the development of OLF.

Антропологические материалы из погребальных комплексов сарматского времени (могильник Вонючка-1, Кавказские Минеральные Воды)

Introduction. Most of the burial mounds of the Caucasian Mineral Waters region combine the burials of representatives of different archaeological cultures separated by thousands of years. Therefore, the rate of accumulation of monocultural synchronous materials in collections for some epochs is quite low, and slows down even more due to the unequal preservation of bone remains. The introduction of new information into scientific circulation based on the results of recent archaeological work will allow faster accumulation of materials and data exchange between researchers working on the same issue. The purpose of this work is to publish morphological features of the skeleton of individuals belonging to the Sarmatian culture of the Pre-Caucasus. Materials and methods. The skeletons of three individuals, from three burials of one mound, dating from the III-I centuries BC and belonging to the nomads of the early Sarmatian time were investigated. The study used both traditional methods of anthropology and bioarchaeological approaches. Sex and age studies were carried out on all preserved parts of the skeleton according to standard anthropological methods. A program for fixing markers of stress and pathological conditions was applied to all the studied individuals. Results. Skeletal remains of two young women and a mature man were studied. Both women had anomalies in the development of teeth: in one case – underdevelopment of enamel, in the other – partial congenital adentia. A set of specific features on the postcranial skeleton of a man allow us to characterize him as a rider, right-handed. Discussion. The results of the study supplement our knowledge about the variability of morphological features of the skeleton of representatives of the nomads of the early Sarmatian culture. Some of the detected signs have a pronounced genetic determination; however, the data obtained is insufficient to identify kinship ties, despite the fact that according to the interpretation of archaeologists, this group of burials is defined as a generic cemetery created during the lifetime of one generation. All the discovered features of the skeleton find analogies among the published materials of synchronous time. @ 2023. This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Anthropological analysis of skeletal remains from the site Vyšná Myšľa - Koscelek.

The archaeological site Vyšná Myšľa - Koscelek is located in the southeast of the Slovak Republic, and it is peculiar by its location in the middle of the woods near a thermal spring. Burials could be dated to the 13th to 14th centuries based on the presence of the ruins of the church, albeit the funeral practices could last until the 18th century. A total of 53 individuals were examined, in whom the age at death, sex and stature were morphoscopically and metric estimated by standard anthropological methods, and the presence of non-metric traits and pathological conditions was also recorded. The analysed group consisted of 40 adults and 4 adolescents, of which 16 were women and 2 possible females, 19 men and one probable male individual, three individuals of inconclusive sex and six individuals of unknown sex because of bad preservation of the human remains. The group of nonadults consisted of 6 children. Pathological conditions were present and recorded in 32% of 53 evaluated individuals. Due to the lack of historical written sources, this analysis represents an important study for the reconstruction of the life of historical population living in this area.

Osteoma of the zygomatic bone from 16th century Sardinia (Italy) in the framework of a paleoepidemiological study

ObjectiveThe aim of this paper is to evaluate a case of osteoma of the zygomatic bone in a post-medieval individual in the context of a paleoepidemiological approach. MaterialsForty-five skulls from the plague cemetery of Alghero (Sardinia, Italy), dating back to the end of the 16th century, were evaluated for the presence of osteomata on the outer surface of the cranial vault and facial bones. MethodsMacroscopic examination was performed using standard anthropological methods. The bone presenting the lesion was submitted to radiological examination through cone beam; a 3D reconstruction was obtained with a surface 3D scanner. ResultsOnly one case of osteoma was observed in an adolescent aged 13–15 years, located on the right zygomatic bone. The lesion consisted of a rounded mass of 0.5 cm in diameter composed of compact bone, as also the radiographic study demonstrates. The prevalence of osteoma on the outer surface of the cranial vault and facial bones in the population of Alghero was 2.2 %. ConclusionsThis case offers the opportunity to enrich the knowledge about the presence of benign tumors among past populations and to evaluate this lesion in dry bone. SignificanceThis study provides paleoepidemiological data on the scarce area of benign tumors in paleo-oncology and presents the first documented osteoma of the zygomatic bone in paleopathology. LimitationHistological study was not performed for conservative issues. Suggestions for future researchIncreasing the attention to benign tumors is essential to deepen our knowledge about paleoepidemiology of neoplastic lesions.

Ankylosing spondylitis on unidentified individual from early modern times found in reformed church (Silická Brezová, Slovakia): a case-based review.

The grave situated in the central part of the reformed church in Silická Brezová in Slovakia contained the human skeletal remains of one individual. The aim of this study was to confirm the presence of ankylosing spondylitis on these skeletal remains. Determine the sex, age at death, stature, and ancestry of the individual by anthropological methods, and also record and identify other pathological manifestations of diseases. A macroscopic examination has been carried out, with the analysis of the palaeopathological conditions of the remains, and subsequently an X-ray and CT completed analysis. The skeleton belonged to a male of European origin, aged between 45 and 60years at the time of death. Stature calculated from the maximal length of his femur was 163.12 ± 3.48cm. Pathological features were identified on the many bones. Ankylosis affected almost the whole spinal cord, including the sacroiliac joints. The skeleton also presented the manifestation of many entheseal changes. Presence of the ankylosing spondylitis was confirmed by a combination of standard anthropological methods and modern diagnostic methods (X-ray and CT analysis). It is a specific disease with a prevalence between 0.1 and 1% worldwide. There is a potential for further genetic research to determine the degree of genetic relatedness with an individual living in this village who has been diagnosed with the same disease.

Application of the lateral angle method for sex determination of cremated individuals from burials of the Lusatian culture cemetery in Czernikowice, Poland

Research of cremated human remains are limited by severe analytical constraints. Estimation of basic anthropological parameters such as sex of individuals or their age at death is often uncertain. A method for assessing the sex of cremated individuals measures the lateral angle of the petrous part (PP) of the temporal bone, known as the lateral angle (LA) method.
 In the cemetery of the Lusatian culture in Czernikowice (51.317389°N, 15.871469°E), 6 well-preserved PP were identified. The analyzed PP belonged to 6 different individuals: 3 adults and 3 children. Based on standard anthropological methods, sex was estimated for adults individuals: 2 males and 1 female. The identified PP served as the basis for application of the LA method. The bones were scanned by computed tomography (CT) and the tomographic imaging allowed measurement of the lateral angle.
 The absolute values of intra-observer errors did not exceed 1°. Relative technical errors of measurements (rTEM) fell in the range below 5%, which is indicative of their high precision. Individuals for which the LA value was greater than or equal to 45.0° were qualified as females and those for which it was less than 45.0° – as males. The LA values for female individuals ranged from 48.0 to 49.1°, (average 48.5±0.78°, median 48.4°) and for male individuals were in the range of 24.9-37.5° (average 33.4±5.80°, median 35.5°). The absolute difference between the average values for female and male individuals was considerable (15.1°) and statistically significant (p < 0.001).
 The LA method provides good reliability of measurements when it comes to this analysis with regard to cremated osteological material, and the use of non-invasive CT enhances its value in the context of archaeological remains. However, its capability for sexing subadult individuals should be approached with caution and requires further research.

Bronze Age burials from Doghlauri (Georgia). Preliminary analysis of human remains reveals a change in burial customs

The investigation of the Aradetis Orgora site and its burial area, Doghlauri, is providing new data about the Bronze Age in the Shida Kartli province (Georgia). A salvage excavation allowed the discovery of numerous graves and the human remains from 75 of these were later available for the present study. Twenty-three of them date back to the Early Bronze Age (EBA, Kura-Araxes culture) and 52 to the Late Bronze Age (LBA, Lchashen-Tsitelgori culture). Using standard anthropological methods, the minimum number of individuals (MNI) was estimated for each grave and sex and the age at death were assessed.Our preliminary results reveal a clear difference in burial customs between these two periods. The anthropological data coupled with the archaeological documentation suggest that in the EBA many of these graves can be interpreted as collective burials (in 13 Kura-Araxes graves out of 23 more than one individual was represented, with up to six individuals buried in them). Both sexes and almost all the age classes are represented in these. By contrast, in the LBA, single burials are the rule for all age classes and both sexes.

Bamboo Crafts and Associated Knowledge System of The Karbi Tribe of Assam Plains, North-Eastern India: A Cultural Heritage

Bamboo, one of the precious plant resources of the earth, plays a cardinal role in influencing civilised life patterns in Southern and Eastern Asian countries, where they are found in abundance. It has a long history in people's lives as cultural material. India is the second richest country in the generic bamboo resources after China. In India, bamboo is one of the most important forest species and has a wide distribution throughout the country and contributes to the rural economy. The North-Eastern region of India has a rich diversity of bamboo. It is integral to the life and culture of the ethnic communities of this region. In this area, the usage of bamboo made it an indispensable commodity for the rural people. The Karbi tribe of the Assam State of India has a rich cultural heritage of arts and crafts. They are masters in the skilful tradition of bamboo craft. Bamboo is an indispensable part of their livelihood mostly in food, shelter, household items, basketry, fishing gear, musical instrument, medicine, furniture and other various ethno-religious purposes. Various bamboo craft traditions of the community get the most creative expression through skill and the traditional knowledge of craftsmanship. This knowledge is essentially community-specific and restricted to the community and is accumulated through long interaction with the environment. Nowadays, this craft tradition is on the verge of extinction due to many reasons. Therefore, it is a timely requirement to document this craft tradition associated with the traditional knowledge system and wisdom. The present study has been designed in this context. During the study, standard anthropological methods have been applied. The present paper is based on the authors' empirical findings, and it probes into the cultural heritage of bamboo crafts of the Karbi community, which is governed by traditional knowledge and skills through empiricism. The paper also focuses on the importance and cultural significance of bamboo within the said community. The study also highlights this craft tradition's present scenario and provides recommendations to revive this heritage tradition.

The mass burials from the western necropolis of the Greek colony of Himera (Sicily) related to the battles of 480 and 409 BCE

AbstractThroughout the ancient Greek, world mass burials are rare. Of the 10,000 excavated burials in the western necropolis of the Greek colony of Himera (649–409), only 16 contained more than one individual; seven of these can in all possibility be traced back to the two battles fought by Himera against the Carthaginians in 480 and 409 BCE. Written sources (Diod. 11.20ff.) state that the Himerans, accompanied by numerous Greek allies, defeated the Carthaginian forces in the first conflict whereas the loss of Greek allied support in the second battle resulted in the city's defeat and subsequent destruction.The anthropological and taphonomical studies of the human remains aim at testing the archaeological hypothesis that individuals interred in the seven mass graves can be related to the two battles.Skeleton density (skeletons per square metre), position, orientation, and conservation levels of the individuals in the mass burials were analysed and compared with a larger sample of 1,000 single burials from the same necropolis along with mass graves in other forensic and archaeological contexts. Sex, age at death, presence of skeletal stress indicators, and perimortal traumas were recorded using standard anthropological methods. In the case of poorly preserved remains, sex was estimated using site‐specific discriminant functions.Although representing catastrophic samples, the results from the seven mass burials all lead to the assumption that the graves can be associated with the interment of warriors fallen in battle. Moreover, burial differences have permitted to distinguish the mass burials dating to 480 BCE from those attributed to 409 BCE.

Applicability of pulp/tooth ratio method for age estimation.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reliability of the tooth/pulp ratio method in the process of age estimation at the moment of death in a forensic context and compare it with standard anthropological methods. After the exhumation of mass graves located in sites in Batajnica, Serbia, in 2002 and 2003, skeletal material was thoroughly analyzed by a group of anthropologists and pathologists. As a part of the investigation, orthopantomography (OPG) was performed for each individual. During 2018 these OPGs were reexamined for scientific purposes. Age-at-death was assessed by means of the pulp/tooth ratio method applied to all available lower premolars. Estimated age following standard anthropological methods and chronological age (obtained after DNA identification of victims) was taken from the records. Age estimation using the pulp/tooth ratio and standard methods was compared with chronological age. The pulp/tooth ratio method was accurate in 81.25% of all cases and the standard method was accurate in 56.25% of all cases. The pulp/tooth ratio method of age estimation was found to be applicable and accurate. However, age estimation should be based on all available methods.

Volcanoes, medicine, and monasticism: Investigating mercury exposure in medieval Iceland

AbstractThis study aimed to evaluate the possible use of mercury as a medical treatment at the medieval monastic hospital Skriðuklaustur (ad 1494–1554) in eastern Iceland. The individuals excavated from Skriðuklaustur exhibited a wide range of pathological conditions, including the only skeletal evidence of venereal syphilis in Iceland. Skeletal remains from the Skeljastaðir cemetery (ca. ad 1000–1104) in southern Iceland were also analysed in light of the site's proximity to the mercury emitting volcano Hekla. The eruption produced a severe toxic fallout resulting in the mass mortality of livestock and is believed to have caused the abandonment of Skeljastaðir and the other farms in the region. The skeletal analyses and sampling were conducted according to standard anthropological methods. Mercury concentrations were determined in human (n = 50), faunal (n = 23), and soil (n = 22) samples using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Individuals from both sites exhibited elevated mercury concentrations. At Skriðuklaustur, some individuals showed normal concentrations, but those with pathological conditions (e.g., hydatidosis, syphilis, tuberculosis, and other non‐specific infections) had the highest concentrations overall. On the other hand, all the individuals analysed from Skeljastaðir exhibited elevated mercury concentrations, some of which were remarkably high. A few of the individuals buried at Skeljastaðir post‐date the eruption, possibly indicating that some of them experienced heavy exposure to volcanic emissions. The less extreme concentrations at Skriðuklaustur may be a result of attention to dosage and the temporary nature of mercurial treatments. None of the faunal and soil samples presented with concentrations exceeding the normal limit, implying that diagenesis was not a concern in this research. The conclusion is that a variety of factors from medical treatment to scholarly work lead to mercury exposure at Skriðuklaustur, whereas at Skeljastaðir, volcanogenic emissions are implicated.

Estimating Sex Using Metric Analysis of the Scapula by Postmortem Computed Tomography.

Postmortem computed tomography (CT) has been extensively used in the last decade for identification purposes and in various anthropologic studies. Postmortem CT measurements of scapulae, analyzed using logistic discriminant function developed in this study, showed 94.5% accuracy in estimating sex. Data analyzed using the Dabbs and Moore-Jansen (2010) discriminant function and the discriminant function generated in this study provided nearly identical results with disagreement in only one case. Height and weight were not statically significant in sex prediction. The results of this study show that data obtained from volume rendered postmortem CT images can be considered reliable and treated as a practical option to standard anthropological methods, especially in mass fatalities as a rapid triage tool for sex determination.

Influence of physiological stress on the presence of hypoplasia and fluctuating asymmetry in a medieval population from the village of Sypniewo

This study aims to estimate the levels of physiological stress in the medieval rural population of Sypniewo by evaluating patterns of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and enamel hypoplasia (EH), and provide information on the influence of physiological stress during the prenatal and perinatal period on early childhood development.Stress is defined as any external or internal condition that challenges homeostasis of an organism. FA is associated with physiological stress occurring mainly during prenatal development and early childhood. The level of FA is thought to reflect the intensity of the stressor(s). EH is caused by physiological stress such as nutritional instability during the first years of life.The studied material consisted of 126 skulls from the village of Sypniewo (Poland). Cranial radiographs were taken in postero-anterior (P-A) and basal views. The images were scanned and calibrated. Measurements of the cranium were used to estimate FA. The presence of EH was assessed using standard anthropological methods The highest levels of FA were observed in the region of the cranial base. EH was observed in 29% of individuals from the rural skeletal series. There was no statistically significant correlation between FA and EH occurrence or between sex and the studied stress indicators.

Sex determination from femora in late antique sample from Eastern Adriatic coast (Salona necropolis)

The determination of sex is one of the first steps in anthropological analysis. When skeletal remains are fragmented, the most useful approach is application of osteometric methods. The methods are population specific, and therefore require development of discriminant functions for each population group.
 The aim of this study was to test sexual dimorphism of femoral measurements and to calculate discriminant functions applicable for sex determination on fragmented skeletal remains on the late antique sample from the Eastern Adriatic coast (2nd–6th century AD).
 214 randomly chosen skeletons from the excavation site Solin-Smiljanovac were analyzed. Sex and age were assessed using standard anthropological methods, and skeletons were examined for pathologic and traumatic changes. In the next step, we selected 27 female and 48 male skeletons free of peri- or post-mortem changes that could affect measurements Eight standard femoral measurements were taken. Sexual dimorphism was initially compared using independent sample t test, after which discriminant functions were computed.
 All femoral measurements showed statistically significant sexual dimorphism (p<0.001). Ten discriminant functions for every part of femur were calculated and obtained classification accuracy of 73.1–91.8%.
 This study reached relatively high classification, which will improve further analysis of the skeletal remainsn from the Salona necropolis. Due to similar population structure in the Roman period across the Adriatic coast, the discriminant functions could be applicable for all populations from the same period and area. This study also raised a few methodological questions showing that when creating discriminant functions we should consider not only the accuracy, but also the applicability based on the experience from the anthropology laboratory that considers the state of preservation and frequent pathology.

Which theory for the origin of syphilis is true?

There are four theories about the origin of syphilis, of which the mostly represented one is the Columbian theory. This theory suggests that syphilis was brought into Europe in 1493 ad by the ship from Caribbean islands. The aim of this study is to test all theories on a sample of 403 skeletons: 135 from prehistory, 134 from antique, and 134 from medieval period and new age from the Dalmatia (Croatia). All skeletons were examined using standard anthropological methods. Paleopathological analysis was performed on each skeleton as well as additional radiographic method on one isolated skeleton. Paleopathological changes on skeletal remains connected with treponematosis. Paleopathological analysis revealed one skeleton from the antique period (second to 6th century A.D.) that exhibited skeletal markers similar to those described in one clinical case in which congenital syphilis was confirmed by a Wasserman reaction. Skeletal remains of this person were examined macroscopically and radiographically, and the differential diagnostics eliminated other considered pathologies as well as trauma. The finding of skeletal markers of syphilis on a skeleton from the antique supports the theory of pre-Columbian syphilis origin.

Dentofacial and Cranial Changes in Down Syndrome

ObjectivesThis study aimed to determine the prevalence of certain oral characteristics usually associated with Down syndrome and to determine the oral health status of these patients. MethodsThe cross-sectional study was conducted among patients attending a special education program at Faculty of Dentistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi, India. The study design consisted of closed-ended questions on demographic characteristics (age, sex, and education and income of parents), dietary habits, and oral hygiene habits. Clinical examination included assessment of oral hygiene according to Simplified Oral Hygiene Index (OHI-S), dental caries according to decayed, missing, and filled teeth (DMFT) index, periodontal status according to the Community Periodontal Index of Treatment Needs (CPITN), and malocclusion according to Angles classification of malocclusion. Examinations were carried out using a using a CPI probe and a mouth mirror in accordance with World Health Organization criteria and methods. Craniometric measurements, including maximum head length and head breadth were measured for each participant using Martin spreading calipers centered on standard anthropological methods. ResultsThe majority of the patients were males (n = 63; 82%) with age ranging from 6–40 years. The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) score of the patients indicated that 31% had moderate mental disability and 52% had mild mental disability. 22% exhibited hearing and speech problems.12% had missing teeth and 15% had retained deciduous teeth in adult population. The overall prevalence of dental caries in the study population was 78%. DMFT, CPITN and OHI scores of the study group were 3.8 ± 2.52, 2.10 ± 1.14 and 1.92 ± 0.63 respectively. The vast majority of patients required treatment (90%), primarily of scaling, root planing, and oral hygiene education. 16% of patients reported CPITN scores of 4 (deep pockets) requiring complex periodontal care. The prevalence of malocclusion was 97% predominantly of Class III malocclusions. Further 14% presented with fractured anterior teeth primarily central incisor. The percentage means of cephalic index was 84.6% in the study population. The brachycephalic and hyperbrachycephalic type of head shape was dominant in the Down syndrome individuals (90%). ConclusionThe most common dentofacial anomaly seen in these individuals was fissured tongue followed by macroglossia.

Analysis of interaction between nutritional and developmental instability in mediaeval population in Wrocław

In this paper, we test the hypothesis that indices of nutritional stress from enamel hypoplasia increase the incidence of indicators of developmental instability in fluctuating asymmetry, even in high social status individuals. The studied material consisted of a medieval sample of 58 skulls from the Wrocław area. Radiographs were taken in postero-anterior (P-A) and base projections. Images were scanned and calibrated by means of MicroStation 95 Academic Edition software, and measurements of the skull images were used to estimate fluctuating asymmetry. The presence of hypoplasia and caries was assessed using standard anthropological methods and all data was statistically analysed. The highest levels of fluctuating asymmetry were observed in the skull base region. Hypoplasia was observed in 40% and caries in 55.5%.
 Differences were noted in the level of fluctuating asymmetry in relationship to the presence or absence of hypoplasia, where a higher level predisposes individuals to enamel hypoplasia and a decline in buffering capacity, regardless of their socio-economic status.