Stalking Perpetration Research Articles

Is there a link between neurodiversity and stalking? a systematic review

Purpose The increasing conviction rates of stalking in the UK have prompted efforts to identify factors that may influence individuals to engage in such behaviour. Over two million people in England and Wales experience stalking every year, with estimated reoffending rates for stalking being between 25 and 55% (ONS, 2022; McEwan et al., 2017). Research has identified risk factors that may contribute towards stalking behaviours, which has included obsessive relational pursuit and online impulsivity (Post et al., 2014a; Rocheleau, 2019). This has resulted in researchers postulating a link between facets of neurodiversity and stalking behaviour (Freckelton, 2013). The purpose of this study was to examine the evidence base for any link between neurodiversity and stalking. Design/methodology/approach The Systematic Review was performed according to the recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Papers were screened for quality appraisal and risk of bias. The initial search yielded 3,880 articles. A total of 10 papers were deemed as meeting the inclusion criteria. Findings There is insufficient research quality regarding neurodiversity and stalking perpetration due to poor diagnostic reliability of neurodiversity and a lack of reliable tools being used in the research which do not meet the definitions of stalking. As such, the existing research about neurodiversity and stalking perpetration is inconclusive and predominantly unreliable. Tentative evidence indicated that people with neurodiversity were at greater risk of being victims of stalking and that for the minority of people with neurodiversity who engage in stalking the factors that contribute towards this mirror those of neurotypical individuals. Practical implications Overall, the factors contributing to stalking highlighted by the included studies, such as difficulties with communication, empathy, insight into social functioning, interpersonal competence and ways of forming relationships with others, seem to map onto the deficits of neurotypical stalking perpetrators (Canter and Youngs, 2012; Lewis et al., 2001; Mullen et al., 2006). However, tools that contextualise neurodiversity in the context of risk assessments for stalking may be helpful (Al-Attar, 2019, 2021). Originality/value Recommendations for further research are made to gain a robust understanding of any potential relationship between neurodiversity and stalking and in particular a risk of stalking victimisation.

Stalking Perpetration in Adolescents in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence

ABSTRACT Intimate partner violence can occur as a form of stalking behaviour, which is considered a pattern of repeated and unwanted behaviours towards another individual. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 498 participants from Portugal, aged between 12–21 years. Findings support that adolescent stalking perpetrators exhibited psychopathic traits, psychopathology, aggression, and childhood trauma. Results showed that anxiety partially mediates the association between childhood trauma and stalking perpetration. These findings provide a better understanding of stalking in adolescence, which allows professionals to have a more comprehensive approach when considering intervention programs. Limitations and future research are discussed.

스토킹 가해자 교정 및 상담 프로그램의 필요성 연구

As for domestic stalking crimes, stalking began to be recognized as a crime when the 'Special Act on Stalking Punishment' was proposed in 1999. It was pointed out that there was no direct regulation on the definition of stalking behavior and the basis for punishment, and the revision of the 'Misdemeanor Punishment Act' in 2013 laid the groundwork for punishment. As a result, With the establishment of a 'stalking' code in the 112 reporting system in May 2018, stalking crime statistics and information management related to the case began to be systematically carried out. The number of stalking crime reports has increased more than 10 times in the past five years, from 2,767 in 2018 to 29,565 in 2022, the most recent report. Therefore, due to the increasing number of stalking crimes and the limitations of victim protection under the current law, policy intervention is necessary for the perpetrators of stalking crimes. Therefore, this study aims to find out about correction and counseling programs for overseas stalking perpetrators, and to make policy suggestions on the necessity of correction and counseling programs for domestic stalking perpetrators. As a result of the study, in the case of the UK and Japan, it was possible for the police to intervene early against stalking perpetrators, and in particular, several institutions cooperated to operate treatment and counseling programs for perpetrators to verify their effectiveness.

Personality Attributions in the Context of Stalking of Ex-Intimates or Others: A Victim's Perspective.

Stalking perpetrators may suffer from maladaptive personality traits, particularly if they stalk in the context of an (ex-)intimate relationship. To date, no study has examined how different personality attributions may relate to stalker motivation, or the behaviors they engage in, and how this differs across victim-perpetrator relationships. Further, the perspective of the victim is often not taken into consideration, even though most stalking victims know their stalker intimately and a majority are stalked by a former or current partner. The present study employed a correlational design to assess the relationship between stalking behaviors, motivation to stalk, and personality attributions, as perceived by the victim across an ex-intimate or other victim-perpetrator relationship. The study sample consisted of 100 victims of stalking (63% ex-intimate; 85% female) who were recruited through a National Stalking Helpline. Results align with and extend the results of previous researchers, most notably the high proportion of reported Cluster B-aligned personality attributions among stalkers, as well as the proportion of more under-researched personality attributions, and their associated risks. Victims of an ex-intimate partner were more likely to report their stalker was motivated by intimacy, and personality attributions aligned with both borderline and paranoid PD were more often reported than in other relationship contexts. Results and clinical implications are discussed.

Social Norms Impact the Likelihood of Stalking Perpetration Among College Students

ABSTRACT Researchers examined stalking likelihood among college students as a function of social norms and stalking perpetration. Undergraduate students’ (N = 480) self-reported past perpetration of stalking and likelihood of stalking in the future were assessed via an online survey. For each of the stalking likelihood items, participants were provided average stalking likelihood peer responses for their reference. Social norms were manipulated such that participants were randomly assigned experimentally inflated or deflated averages for each item. Almost 40% of the sample met the criteria for stalking perpetration. In general, when participants were exposed to inflated norms their self-reported likelihood of stalking increased in comparison to when participants were exposed to deflated norms. Overall, perpetrators were significantly more likely to report they would engage in the stalking behaviors listed in the future compared to non-perpetrators. Based on the effect sizes, perpetrators were more influenced by inflated norms and non-perpetrators were more influenced by deflated norms. Both perpetrators and non-perpetrators were impacted by social norms, but this relationship was stronger when those norms were aligned with participants’ stalking perpetrator status. Generally, self-reports of stalking likelihood were low while stalking perpetration behaviors were widespread. Stalking prevention and intervention education campaigns focused on changing social norms could be a positive step toward reducing stalking victimization with the goal of creating safer communities.

A comparison of public perceptions of cisgender male and transgender male stalking perpetrators

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to compare perceptions of male cisgender and male transgender stalking perpetrators. There present study compared participants’ perceptions of whether behaviour constituted stalking, posed a threat, had a risk of violence and required police intervention when the perpetrator was transgender or cisgender. The present study also sought to replicate the prior-relationship misconception in stalking literature and to investigate whether perceptions of transgender perpetrators changed based on the age and gender of the perceiver.Design/methodology/approachParticipants read vignettes outlining the relationship between victim and perpetrator as well as a description of the stalking behaviours. Participants then reported their perceptions of the four dependent variables on Likert-type scales.FindingsThe prior-relationship misconception was replicated. There were no significant differences in perceptions of transgender and cisgender perpetrators across the four dependent variables. There were also no significant differences in perceptions based on the gender of the perceiver. Contrary to expectations, older participants perceived transgender perpetrators as less threatening than younger participants.Research limitations/implicationsThe prior-relationship misconception is robust to gender identity of the perpetrator. The participants in the present study seemed to make judgements based on stalking behaviour and not the gender identity of the perpetrator. Future research should replicate this study with more severe stalking behaviours and with greater variation in gender identity.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to compare perceptions of cisgender and transgender males in the context of stalking perpetration. There is also consideration of how the demographics of the perceiver could impact these perceptions. This study also contributes to research on the prior-relationship misconception by demonstrating that the misconception is robust to gender identification of the perpetrator.

Who Are the Stalkers in Hong Kong? Examining Stalking Perpetration Behaviors and Motives of Young Adults.

Information on the stalking perpetration dynamics of young male and female adults in Asian countries is scarce, particularly in relation to stalkers’ offending characteristics, perpetration behaviors, motives, and other violent and nonviolent behaviors. This study compares the stalking perpetration dynamics (i.e., offending characteristics, lifetime stalking perpetration behaviors and motives, and other violent and nonviolent behaviors) of young male and female adults in Hong Kong. Of the 2496 participants, recruited from all eight public and two private universities in Hong Kong, 45 participants (1.8%; mean age = 22.84 years) reported stalking perpetration during their lifetimes (33 males (mean age = 22.56 years) and 12 females (mean age = 23.58 years)). Significantly more males than females reported that they had engaged in stalking perpetration in the past 12 months. In general, participants most frequently perpetrated surveillance-oriented stalking behaviors, followed by approach-oriented stalking behaviors and intimidation- and aggression-oriented stalking behaviors. Significantly more females than males reported to have threatened to harm or kill their victims. Additionally, significantly more females than males reported “the victim caught me doing something” as their motive for stalking. The findings of our study provide useful information for prioritization during criminal investigations. Increased understanding of the stalking perpetration dynamics of males and females will help the police and threat assessment professionals to formulate their investigation and management plans.

"You Want to Catch the Biggest Thing Going in the Ocean": A Qualitative Analysis of Intimate Partner Stalking.

This study employs a qualitative phenomenological exploration of the “lived” experiences of male intimate partner stalking (IPS) perpetrators serving a custodial sentence in the United Kingdom for an offense related to intimate partner violence (IPV). The purpose of this study is to capture the nature and complexity of the experiences of the pathway to IPS from the perspective of the perpetrator. The study seeks to provide a unique understanding of how IPS perpetrators attribute meaning to their behavior, illuminating the underpinning cognitive characteristics and emotions that play a role in their behavior. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven men with a history of IPS behavior. The resultant transcripts were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Five superordinate themes reflecting participants’ experiences were identified: (a) “The quest for attention and affection creating connection,”(b) “Conflicted identity and extremes of self,” (c) “My life, a film set,” (d) “Gameplaying: One step ahead,” and (e) “Severed connections, changing the Gameplay.” The findings are presented in relation to the existing literature and theoretical frameworks which seek to explain stalking perpetration. The analysis provides a greater understanding of men who have engaged in IPS behavior, demonstrating how hearing the perspective of the perpetrator has value in informing theory and intervention. The study has provided valuable insight into the cognitive characteristics of this population and a rich understanding of the profiles of men who have engaged in IPS behavior. Implications for forensic practice, policy, and research are outlined, and recommendations for future research and overall limitations are discussed.

Identifying the characteristics associated with intimate partner stalking: a mixed methods structured review and narrative synthesis

ABSTRACT The empirical research on the clinical management of intimate partner stalking perpetrators remains in the early stages of informing forensic practice. This study presents the first known structured review which seeks to inform intervention pathways for this group through illuminating the characteristics associated with intimate partner stalking. A systematic search was conducted across five academic databases, reference lists of papers were reviewed, and ‘experts’ contacted to identify relevant papers. The search strategy identified 2674 papers. Twenty-two studies were selected in line with predetermined inclusion/exclusion criteria and assessed for methodological quality. All studies employed an observational research design; eighteen quantitative, two qualitative, and two mixed methods design studies were included. Data were extracted and subjected to narrative synthesis. Overall, intimate partner stalking perpetrators presented with some similar characteristics to intimate partner violence perpetrators, whilst some characteristics were deemed more prevalent to intimate partner stalking perpetrators. The findings illustrate there are likely to be subtypes of intimate partner stalking perpetrators, requiring a bespoke approach to intervention. Limitations are presented and recommendations made for future research. The wider implications for forensic practice in informing the clinical management of this group and approaches to intervention are discussed.

Responding to Stalking Victims: Perceptions, Barriers, and Directions for Future Research

Stalking cases have long presented challenges for the criminal justice system. The end result has been low conviction rates for stalking offenses and frustration for stalking victims. To date, little is known regarding the perspectives of criminal justice and community advocacy agencies in working with stalking perpetrators and victims and how these could inform practice and future research. We conducted interviews with individuals in the different agencies involved in the Cuyahoga County, Ohio criminal justice system and well as the victim service organizations that work with stalking victims in the county. We collected information about their perceptions of stalking victims, what obstacles exist to addressing their needs, what changes are needed to increase the charging and prosecution rates for stalking cases, and how different system players draw distinctions between stalking and domestic violence offenders. Key findings include the significant discrepancy perceived between the public’s view of stalking and actual stalking behavior, the varied views of what constitutes a typical stalking victim, the wide range of needs of stalking victims, the challenges to charging and prosecuting stalking cases, and the burden placed on victims in these cases. We conclude by discussing obstacles that exist for victims seeking help from the criminal justice system for stalking behavior and provide suggestions for education and training that could lead to more effective stalking policy and practice. The study concludes with recommendations for future research on stalking.

Health Care Professionals' Knowledge of Stalking Perpetrators, Victims, Behaviors, and Coping Strategies: A Preliminary Study among Italian Hospitals.

The aim of this study was to investigate health care professionals' level of in-depth understanding about the various types and characteristics of stalking. In particular, the study examines knowledge on the characteristics of stalkers and their victims, acted behaviors, and coping strategies used to stop the harassment. The data were collected by means of an ad hoc questionnaire. The sample comprised 210 participants working in local health units in Turin, a large city located in the northern part of Italy. The majority were women (160, 76.2%). The participants were aged 20–64 years, and the mean age was 41.63 years (SD = 11.18). The majority of participants were psychologists (99, 47.1%), 31 (14.8%) were nurses, 31 (14.8%) had an unspecified medical profession, 29 (13.8%) were psychiatrists, and 20 (9.5%) were general practitioners. According to the findings, interventions with male victims of stalking, especially when the stalker is a woman, require attention in particular. Underestimating the stalking experience is a risk, so health care professionals in their interventions must explain to the men the emotive and physical consequences of the victimization. Moreover, in suggesting coping strategies, health care professionals must consider the victim's fear of reporting the incident not only to law enforcement authorities but also to family and friends. The findings showed that health care professionals need a better understanding of the stalking phenomenon. Education courses are a valuable tool to identify characteristics of the phenomenon, validate existing knowledge, and decrease the level of missing information to develop the skills needed to take appropriate action in cases of stalking.

Adolescent stalking and risk of violence

Stalking perpetration and the associated risk for violence among adolescents has generally been neglected. In the present study, 1236 youth completed surveys assessing empirically established stalking indicators, threats and aggression toward stalking victims, dating violence, and violent delinquency. Latent Profile Analysis identified 3 latent classes of boys: non-perpetrators (NP), hyper-intimate pursuit (HIP), and comprehensive stalking perpetrators (CSP) and, and 2 classes for girls: NP and HIP. Boys in the CSP class were the most violent youth on nearly all indices with boys in the HIP class demonstrating an intermediate level of violence compared to NP boys. Girls in the HIP class were more violent than NP girls on all indices. These findings suggest stalking in adolescence merits attention by violence prevention experts. In particular, juvenile stalking may signify youth at risk for multiple forms of violence perpetrated against multiple types of victims, not just the object of their infatuation.

Predicting Overt and Cyber Stalking Perpetration by Male and Female College Students

In this study, self-report student surveys on early childhood maltreatment, attachment styles, alcohol expectancies, and narcissistic personality traits are examined to determine their influence on stalking behavior. Two subtypes of stalking were measured using Spitzberg and Cupach's (2008) Obsessive Relational Intrusion: cyber stalking (one scale) and overt stalking (comprised of all remaining scales). As t tests indicated that men and women differed significantly on several variables, OLS regression models were run separately for men (N = 807) and women (N = 934). Results indicated that childhood sexual maltreatment predicted both forms of stalking for men and women. For men, narcissistic vulnerability and its interaction with sexual abuse predicted stalking behavior (overt stalking R² = 16% and cyber stalking R² = 11%). For women, insecure attachment (for both types of stalking) and alcohol expectancies (for cyber stalking) predicted stalking behavior (overt stalking R² = 4% and cyber stalking R² = 9%). We discuss the methodological and policy implications of these findings.

Is stalking a learned phenomenon? An empirical test of social learning theory

Purpose We examine the extent to which components of social learning theory (i.e., definitions, differential reinforcement, and differential association/modeling) predict stalking victimization and perpetration using survey data from a large sample of college students. Methods Among a sample of 2,766 college students, logistic regression models were estimated to analyze the relationships between social learning theory and stalking perpetration and victimization. Results Results suggest that victimization and perpetration are functions of social learning. The findings also indicated that females were significantly more likely to be both stalking victims and perpetrators. Conclusions Regarding stalking perpetration and victimization, our results suggest that there may be responses, attitudes, and behaviors that are learned, modified, or reinforced primarily through interaction with peers. Overall, social learning theory concepts appear to be important predictors of stalking perpetration and victimization that help to develop theoretical explanations for stalking.

Male Victims of Former-Intimate Stalking: A Selected Review

Over the past decade, there has been an increase of research on former-intimate stalking, with many studies examining female victims and male perpetrators of this crime. Most of this research has shown that males form a significant proportion of those who are stalked by a former-intimate partner, and in more recent years, some studies have found that former-intimate stalking, like “domestic violence,” is gender neutral or gender-inclusive. Experimental research on perceptions of stalking has revealed that male stalking victimization is considered less concerning and less dangerous than female victimization and that males should be able to control their own stalking experience. Clearly, female stalking victimization is a serious social problem and studies on this are common. However, this is not the case for male stalking victims. This selected review will examine the prevalence of stalking for males across different samples, male and female perceptions of the acts that may constitute stalking, perceptions of male and female stalking perpetrators, and perceptions of male victimization and their impact on men.

Psychopathy in a Mixed Gender Sample of Adult Stalkers

The authors present data on a mixed gender sample of 78 adult stalking perpetrators, each of whom was assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist:Screening Version (PCL:SV). Results indicate a generally low frequency of psychopathy in this group, although 15% of the sample was composed of psychopaths. Comparisons between this sample and other forensic samples indicate that both the frequency and degree of psychopathy were lower in the stalking group. The findings support previous theory and empirical findings, including the concept that underlying attachment pathology among stalkers and psychopaths is quite different, and psychopathy--in contrast to other areas of violence risk assessment--is usually not relevant when evaluating dangerousness among stalkers.