Foam Stability Research Articles

Opportunities and challenges of plant proteins as functional ingredients for food production

Consumer interest in meat and dairy alternatives drives demand for plant-based protein ingredients. While soy and gluten dominate the market, there is a trend to explore alternative crops for functional ingredient production. The multitude of ingredients poses challenges for food manufacturers in selecting the right protein. We investigated 61 commercially available protein ingredients from various sources, categorizing them based on their protein content into protein-rich flours (protein content less than 50%), protein concentrates (protein content between 50% and 80%), and protein isolates (protein content higher than 80%). Methionine, cysteine, and lysine were decisive for the amino acid score, which even varied between ingredients produced from the same raw material. Such differences were also observed in the protein solubility profiles, characterized by their raw material-specific protein pattern. By focusing on soy, pea, and fava bean ingredients, the broad spectra of emulsifying and foaming properties were illustrated. These ranged from non-emulsifying and non-foaming to high emulsifying capacities of 737 mL/g ingredient and foaming activities of 2,278%, accompanied by a foam stability of 100%. Additionally, we demonstrated that the functionality of ingredients obtained from different batches could vary by up to 24% relative SD. Protein solubility, powder wettability, color, and particle size were determined as key properties for the differentiation of soy, pea, and fava bean protein ingredients by principal component analysis. In our study conclusion, we propose essential measures for overcoming challenges in protein ingredient production and utilization to realize their full potential in fostering sustainable and innovative plant-based food production.

Dimensionless analysis of foam stability for application in enhanced oil recovery

The stability of foam during injection into oil reservoirs is critical, especially under high-temperature and high-salinity conditions. This study formulates foam stabilizers using one polymer, two surfactants, and six types of nanoparticles (NPs). Foam stability was assessed with a static setup, examining factors such as interfacial tension (IFT), bubble characteristics, and solution viscosity through dimensionless numbers: Bond number (Bo), Worthington number (We), and Neumann number (Ne). A new formula for dimensionless electrical conductivity was also introduced. Results showed that at optimal concentrations of the four additives, foam stability improved with NPs due to enhanced surface charge from in situ physiochemical reactions, promoting their migration to the fluid interface. Notably, Ne proved more effective than Bo and We in describing foam stability as it accounts for droplet height’s impact on IFT. Acidic NPs demonstrated greater electrostatic force than amphoteric NPs, correlating with improved foam stability reflected in a downward trend in the Ne plot. Additionally, we analyzed the coarsening rate of foam bubbles over time and its relationship to stability. Our findings suggest that dimensionless numbers serve as valuable benchmarks for evaluating foam stability across various additive mechanisms.

Enhancing CO2 Foam Stability with Hexane Vapours: Mitigating Coarsening and Drainage Rates

CO2 foams often suffer from poor stability due to high coarsening and coalescence rates, limiting their effectiveness in various applications. While it is well-established that small amounts of insoluble vapours such as alkane or fluorocarbon vapours can impede coarsening and recent studies have demonstrated their impact on coalescence, their specific effect on the CO2 foams has not been studied. This research provides a comprehensive examination of stabilising effect of hexane on CO2 foams in the presence of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS). We investigated the foam stability of CO2 foams, benchmarking them against N2 foams by analysing foam lifetime, liquid drainage rate, and the evolution of bubble size. Additionally, we quantified the stabilising impact of hexane by calculating the coarsening rate. To gain insights into the adsorption mechanism of surfactants in the presence of hexane, we conducted surface tension and interfacial dilational rheology measurements, which demonstrated an increased adsorption of surfactant molecules at the interface and increased dilational viscoelasticity of interface when n-hexane was present. The introduction of hexane significantly improved foam stability, reducing coarsening rates by more than an order of magnitude. This improvement in foam stability is attributed to inhibited CO2 diffusion from the bubbles, as well as enhanced surfactant adsorption and surface elasticity, resulting in an approximate 3.6-fold increase in foam half-life.

Foaming and emulsification synergies in skin mild and environmentally friendly detergents based on Gleditsia sinensis saponins

Gleditsia sinensis saponins (GS) is a biodegradable nonionic surfactant extracted from the plant pericarp. The objective of this study is to evaluate its potential for application in cleaning products in response to resource and environmental changes. Here, high-purity GS (93.92 %) was obtained through the macroporous resin adsorption technique and mixed with sodium lauroyl methylaminopropionate (LMA) to form a Gleditsia sinensis saponins- sodium lauroyl methylaminopropionate (GS-LMA) binary system. The synergistic effect was clarified by calculating the intermolecular interactions and thermodynamic parameters of the mixed micelles. The surface activity, foam stability, and emulsification characteristics were investigated to assess the detergent potential of the GS-LMA mixture. The results indicated that the formation of GS-LMA mixed micelles followed a non-ideal, spontaneous exothermic process. Furthermore, the addition of GS decreased the critical micelle concentration of the mixture while enhancing foam stability (98.34 %) and prolonging the oil–water separation time (103.11 min). The synergistic effects of foaming and emulsification enhanced the cleaning efficiency of the mixtures to 90.60 %. Further studies showed the mixture can reduce oil–water interfacial tension and form stable emulsions in various environments. This work can provide a theoretical basis for a better understanding the synergistic effects of binary surfactants and interfacial science.

Preparation and properties of a fluorine-free aerogel foam extinguishing agent

Research on fluorine-free firefighting foams is urgently needed due to the environmental hazards of conventional aqueous film-forming foams. Functional particles have significant research potential in the development of fluorine-free foam extinguishing agents. In this study, hydrophobic aerogel particles were prepared using a template method, and a fluorine-free aerogel foam extinguishing agent was developed by electrostatic and steric stabilization. The research investigated the impact of aerogel particles and polymers (xanthan gum and polyethylene glycol) on foam characteristics, fire extinguishing performance, as well as their synergistic effect. The results indicated that polymers and aerogel particles reduced the average foam radius and enhanced the foam liquid film strength, though they could not inhibit foam coarsening. Although accelerating foam drainage, aerogel particles effectively enhanced the fire extinguishing performance of the foam. With the addition of only 0.4wt.% aerogel particles, the fire extinguishing time of the foam was reduced by 21.7%, while 100% burnback time increased by 45%. Furthermore, the polymer enhanced the burnback performance of the foam in synergy with aerogel particles by improving foam stability on the hot heptane surface.

CHARACTERIZATION OF CAKES PRODUCED WITH DIFFERENT LEGUME AQUAFABA

This study investigates the potential of aquafaba, derived from various legumes including white chickpeas, black chickpeas, white beans, and red beans, as an egg substitute in cake production. Aquafaba samples were analyzed for physicochemical properties and functional characteristics at different pH levels. The results revealed that the foam and emulsion properties of all aquafaba samples at pH 3 were superior to those obtained at other pH values. Specifically, at pH 3, foam capacity values were approximately 238.74±28.54%, 231.25±26.52%, 237.50±17.68%, and 112.50±17.68% for aquafaba derived from white chickpeas, black chickpeas, white beans, and red beans, respectively. Aquafaba derived from white chickpeas demonstrated the highest foam stability at pH 3 (92.43±0.61%), followed by black chickpeas (86.96±3.30%). Similarly, emulsion capacity at pH 3 was highest for aquafaba derived from white chickpeas (41.14±11.73%), followed by black chickpeas (65.33±26.28%), white beans (28.94±37.69%), and red beans (49.65±9.57%). Emulsion stability was measured as 100% for aquafaba derived from white chickpeas, black chickpeas, and white beans at pH 3, with slightly lower values observed for aquafaba from red beans. Furthermore, aquafaba derived from different legumes exhibited varying protein contents at pH 3, ranging from 17.75±0.05% to 19.20±0.09%. Cake production with aquafaba as an egg substitute was conducted at pH 3, with analyses including moisture, ash, protein, fat, color, texture, specific volume, weight loss, and sensory evaluation. Results indicate the potential of aquafaba as a versatile egg substitute in cake formulations, with promising foam and emulsion properties, protein content, and sensory attributes.

Foaming Properties of Chlorella sorokiniana Microalgal Biomass

Chlorella sorokiniana is a well-studied microalga with significant nutritional potential due to its health-promoting nutrients. C. sorokiniana is rich in proteins (~50%), lipids (~14%), vitamins, and other bioactive compounds, making it an attractive ingredient for the food industry. Other properties of C. sorokiniana, such as its foaming properties, have not been extensively investigated. The present work examines the foaming properties of C. sorokiniana biomass and of its fractions, namely the foaming properties of the whole-cell biomass, the disrupted-cell biomass, the water-soluble protein-rich extract, and the disrupted-cell biomass residue after oil extraction. The water/air interfacial tension, zeta potential, foaming capacity, foam stability, and foam morphology of C. sorokiniana biomass and its fractions were determined. Furthermore, the effect of the pH on the foaming properties of the water-soluble protein-rich extract was also investigated. The results show that the examined fractions decrease the water-air interfacial tension and form foams. The type of biomass fraction affects strongly the foam characteristics and foam stability. Furthermore, the stability and characteristics of the foam are significantly affected by pH. Overall, the water-soluble protein-rich extract at pH 7 presented the best foam stability, as the foam remained stable for more than 24 h and had a narrow bubble size distribution. The obtained results suggest that fractionated microalgae biomass could be used as an effective foaming agent in different commercial applications.

Performances of starch foam improved by an alginate coating

This research aims to develop an environmentally friendly food packaging based on starch foam coated with alginate. The foam was coated with various concentrations of an alginate solution (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 %w/v). The effects of these coatings on the properties of starch foam were then investigated. The results showed that the alginate coating increased the density of the starch foam. Starch foam coated with the alginate solution at a concentration of 1.0 %w/v showed the optimum flexural stress at maximum load (4.72 MPa), hardness (96), and mass loss in water (5.51 %). These results showed significant improvements in these properties by comparison with the uncoated foam. The alginate coating slightly improved the thermal stability of the starch foam and did not significantly delay the biodegradation of the starch foam in soil. In conclusion, coating starch foam with an alginate solution presents a viable approach to developing sustainable food packaging materials with enhanced mechanical and water resistance properties.

Thermal stability and combustion properties of polyurethane foam modified with manganese phytate and expandable graphite

Manganese phytate (MnPa) was prepared and synergistically combined with expandable graphite (EG) flame retardant modified polyurethane foam (PUF). Utilizing thermogravimetric (TG), pyrolysis kinetic analysis, CONE analysis, smoke toxicity analysis, limiting oxygen index (LOI), and UL-94 horizontal combustion test procedures, the thermal stability and combustion parameters of the modified PUFs were examined. The flame retardancy and smoke suppression of the modified PUFs were analyzed based on the heat release rate (HRR), total heat release (THR), smoke production rate (SPR), and total smoke release (TSR). The results showed that MEPUF3 had the highest thermal decomposition rate temperature, initial thermogravimetric temperature, and activation energy (E). It was shown that MEPUF3 had the lowest HRR of 17.68 kW/m2, the lowest THR of 1.15 MJ/m2, the lowest SPR of 0.0046 m2/s, the lowest TSR of 19.58 m2/m2, the lowest Ds of 32.1, the highest transmittance of 57.7%, and the highest LOI of 23.0%. The present study showed that MEPUF3 possessed good thermal stability and flame retardant properties, which provided useful references for subsequent phytate and EG-modified PUFs.

Solvent Effects in the Synthesis of Highly Charged Foams of Poly(4‐styrenesulfonate‐co‐glycidylmethacrylate) for Efficient Adsorption of Methylene Blue Enhanced by Aromatic–Aromatic Interactions

AbstractWater‐resistant porous solid foams expressing a high amount of benzene sulfonate moieties have been fabricated to enhance the adsorption of cationic aromatic pollutants from wastewaters by aromatic–aromatic interactions. Copolymers of sodium 4‐styrene sulfonate (NaSS) and glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) have been obtained and submitted to thermal treatment at 270 °C for 15 min. The influence of the solvent used in the copolymerization step on foamability and foam stability, when formed, has been studied. The use of water as cosolvent with N,N‐dimethyl formamide (DMF) inhibited foam formation. The use of DMF or DMF/dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) = 1:1 as solvents allowed the expansion of copolymers, but the resulting foams are unstable in water, forming hydrogels. However, using DMF/DMSO = 5:1 as solvent, stable water‐resistant foams showing NaSS molar fractions of 43, 57, and 68% are obtained, showing high maximum capacity of 244, 435 and 588 mg g−1 and outstanding pseudo‐second‐order kinetic constants of 1.78, 4.49 and 5.64 g mg−1 min−1 toward adsorption of methylene blue (MB), between 2 and 5 orders‐of‐magnitude higher than referenced adsorbents. This is due to the highly exposed benzene sulfonate active sites / adsorbent mass ratio that induces strong aromatic–aromatic interactions with the cationic aromatic dye.

Biomass-derived wood foam: a solution for efficient thermal insulation in construction

ABSTRACT The increasing demand for sustainable building materials has highlighted the need for bio-based insulation materials with optimised thermal and mechanical properties. This study investigated the impact of biomass-derived wood foam composition on the thermal and mechanical properties of bio-based insulation materials. Utilising polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a binder and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as a foaming agent and wood fibres as support material, this study optimised the foam's stability by mixing 10.0 g PVA, 9.0 g SDS, 11 g wood fibres to create a stable foam with a stirring speed of 900 rpm, yielded a lightweight material with a density of 139 kg/m3 and thermal conductivity of 0.039 W/m K. The wood foam exhibited a regular porous structure with pore sizes ranging from 25 to 1092 μm, and demonstrated compressive and bending strengths comparable to conventional insulation materials. The study underscores the potential of biomass-derived wood foam as a sustainable and effective insulation solution.

Enhancement of foaming performance of hempseed protein by limited enzymatic hydrolysis: From the viewpoint of the structural and interfacial rheological attributes

Effects of limited enzymolysis by Alcalase and Protamex on the foaming performance of hempseed protein (HPI) and its correlation with structural and interfacial rheological characteristics were investigated. Proteolysis induced a conformational shift from α-helix and β-sheet to random coil, indicating enhanced molecular flexibility. The surface hydrophobicity of Alcalase hydrolysates encountered an initial increase (5 min) followed by a sharp drop with prolonged hydrolysis, whereas Protamex showed minimal effects. Both proteases reduced total sulfhydryl content and caused a redshift in intrinsic fluorescence, particularly Alcalase. The specific cleavage pattern of Alcalase generated peptides with pronouncedly higher solubility (up to 47.0 %) relative to Protamex. The flexible conformation and increased solubility induced by moderate proteolysis, notably with Alcalase, facilitated viscoelastic interfacial membranes with consolidated intermolecular interactions, consequently contributing to more homogeneous and smaller bubble structures. Optimal foaming capacity (95.0 %) and foam stability (90.9 %) were achieved with Alcalase for 20 min and 5 min, respectively.

Effect of NaCl concentration on the interfacial and foaming properties of wheat aqueous phase protein

In this study, the structure, foaming properties, and air-water interfacial behavior of wheat aqueous phase protein (WAP) with different NaCl concentrations were investigated. With the addition of NaCl, the particle size and the β-sheet content increased, indicating the formation of larger aggregates. In the FT-IR spectrum NaCl also increased the peak intensity for WAP, this peak often associated with C-O and C-N stretching vibrations, indicating that NaCl may induce conformational changes, such as protein unfolding. As NaCl concentration increased, the foam capacity of WAP increased from 106.25 ± 1.41% to 142.38 ± 15.73%, while native WAP exhibited higher foam stability. Interfacial adsorption kinetics revealed that NaCl favored WAP adsorption at the air-water interface. The interfacial viscoelasticity modulus of all samples increased over time, forming an interfacial layer primarily characterized by elastic behavior. Native WAP exhibited a stronger viscoelasticity modulus, forming a stable adsorption layer at the air-water interface, which contributed to enhanced foam stability. This study provides valuable insights into the regulation of WAP structure and foaming properties by salt ions, which may offer a new strategy for improving the interfacial properties of wheat-based food products.

Upgrading the functional properties of apricot kernel proteins through fibrillization

Apricot kernel meal is an understudied and underutilized by-product of the apricot industry. In this study, apricot kernel protein (AKP) was obtained from apricot kernel meal by a simple one-step salting-in method, exhibiting high yield (38.4 g AKP/100 g defatted meal), high protein content (91.4%), and high solubility (92.5% at neutral pHs). The possibility and kinetics of AKP fibrillization were further investigated. It was found that apricot kernel protein amyloid fibrils (AKPFs) with twisted nanofibrillar structures were readily formed by heating at pH 2.0 and 90 °C. SDS-PAGE analysis indicated that these AKPFs contained peptide fragments with the molecular weight of around 6.5 kDa. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) and intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that the structure, morphology and properties of AKPFs were analogous to other food protein-derived amyloid fibrils. Importantly, AKPF has upgraded foaming characteristics, e.g., AKPF-18h (AKPF formed at 18 h) has 31.7% higher foaming capacity and 30.2% higher foam stability relative to AKP. This is attributed to the formation of a homogeneous interfacial film at the air/water interface of the foam. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of AKPF-18h was also improved, reaching 53.0%, about twice that of AKP (28.4%). In addition, the developed AKP and AKPFs were not cytotoxic in vitro. All these findings suggest that AKPFs have great potential for future food applications.

Flame spreading and burning of high- and low-flash point fuels under compressed air foam suppression

Firefighting foam has been widely used as an efficient and clean agent for extinguishing liquid fires. In this work, the flame spreading and burning of 0# diesel and n-heptane fuels were suppressed using pre discharged compressed air foam (half coverage of the pool). The foam can effectively prevent the liquid-phase-controlled flame spreading over diesel, but cannot prevent the gas-phase-controlled flame spreading of n-heptane. In the burning stage, for diesel, in the flame-foam interaction region, internal fuel flow was observed and theoretically investigated. Meanwhile, the foam layer gradually regresses as it is destroyed by the flame, with a smaller regression rate at a higher foam expansion ratio. Furthermore, the global burning rate of diesel slightly decreases compared with that of no foam discharge, but regardless of the foam expansion ratio or thickness. For n-heptane, total burning develops on the no-foam and foam areas, where the temperature increase rate of the foam-covered fuel decreases mainly depending on the initial foam mass, and the reduction of the radiation heat feedback is mainly related to the foam layer thickness. Meanwhile, foam bubbles are prone to coalescence on the n-heptane surface, which reduces the foam stability and allows it to degrade more quickly. This work helps clarify the mechanisms of foam suppression on high- and low-flash point fuel fire and serves as a guide for engineering applications.

Development of shampoo formulations using plant/microbial biosurfactants as an alternative to shampoos formulated with harsh synthetic surfactants

AbstractThe presence of harmful chemical surfactants such as sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) in healthcare products is a challenge that world is facing today. The present study aimed to formulate novel green shampoos using rhamnolipid and saponin instead of chemical surfactants, and comparison with commercial shampoos. Biosurfactants were confirmed by thin layer and high‐performance liquid chromatography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, proton nuclear magnetic resonance, and their performance was evaluated by zone inhibition and critical micelle concentration (CMC). The saponin and rhamnolipid reduced the surface tension (ST) of water from 72 to 40 and 30 mN/m at their CMCs, respectively. Four novel shampoo formulations were made with SLS, rhamnolipid, saponin, and a mixture of rhamnolipid and saponin. The green shampoos were evaluated with tests of color, odor, transparency, pH, ST, detergency, solid content, foam type, foam volume, wetting time and microbial contamination standard to determine the physicochemical properties. The green formulations with rhamnolipid, saponin and mixture of rhamnolipid and saponin were clear and transparent with a good odor. Low ST (34.13, 38.83, and 31.73 mN/m), good detergency (63.87%, 57.74%, and 64.45%), comparable solid contents (25.11%, 26.95%, and 27.50%), good wetting time (160, 165, and 153 s), and good foam stability even after 60 min were observed for three green shampoos, respectively. Based on the results, it can be concluded that these green shampoos can compete with commercial shampoos and be a suitable alternative to chemical shampoos containing sulfate and sulfate‐free, especially for children, people with eye and skin sensitivities and with oily hair.

Biopolymer foams composed of hydroxypropyl cellulose: Fabrication, aqueous stability, and mechanical integrity

We describe the fabrication of biopolymer foams formed from aqueous solutions of hydroxypropyl cellulose, whereby freezing-induced phase-separation and solvent removal yields robust foam structures that are elastic in air and when wet, and that are stable to repeated compression when fully saturated with water. Through mechanisms of phase-separation, pore formation, and covalent crosslinking, we discovered effective methods to prepare microporous HPC foams that resist gelation even when exposed to water for long time frames (at least months). Employing multifunctional carboxylic acid crosslinkers allowed the foams to maintain their integrity when dry or wet, while the presence of α-cellulose as an additive further augmented their mechanical integrity and provided a means to adjust elasticity. The amount of crosslinker employed in the foaming process significantly impacted foam stability and water uptake, while polymeric crosslinkers enabled insertion of sulfobetaine zwitterionic moieties into the foams. Notably, the thermal transition characteristic of HPC solutions and gels proved operative in foam form, as seen in release of water from a saturated HPC foam using a combination of compressive and thermal mechanisms.

Effect of Physical Treatments on Functional Properties of Whey and Soy Protein Isolates in Oleogel Production Through Foam Template Method.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of physical treatments, namely heat (70 °C for 48 h), atmospheric cold plasma (10 kW for 20 min), and ultrasonic frequency (40 kHz for 15 min), on the physicochemical and interfacial properties of soy protein isolate (SPI) and whey protein isolate (WPI) in the context of oleogel production by foam template (cryogel) method. The physical modification of both SPI and WPI was monitored using SDS-PAGE, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), measuring interfacial tension, color, solubility, foam volume, foam stability, and, finally, the density and oil absorption of the produced cryogel. The findings revealed that the application of ultrasonic waves resulted in a significant reduction in the content of alpha-helical of SPI and WPI while the other treatments increased the content of random coil proteins. FTIR analysis further showed that ultrasonic and heat treatment led to a decrease in C-N tensile vibration within the range of 1200-1650 cm-1 in SPI. Meanwhile, in cold plasma treatment, an increase was observed which was confirmed by the elevation of enthalpy from 100 to 128 kJ/kg. Physical treatments significantly altered the surface properties of both SPI and WPI, where this value was reduced in SPI and increased in WPI. The cold plasma method demonstrated superior performance in enhancing the solubility of SPI from 10 to 58.2%, while the solubility of WPI decreased from 96.4 to 90.4%. By modifying the proteins, the foam volume and oil adsorption ability of the related cryogel improved, as shown by the maximum oil absorption obtained after ultrasonic treatment for SPI (11.6 g/g) and cold plasma (9.17 g/g) for WPI. These results could be useful in applying physical treatments to modify proteins and create the cryogel as an oleogel template for structuring liquid oil and producing innovative health value-added foods.

Analysis of PH, foam stability, and antioxidant activity in soap formulation from extract of pedada leaves (Sonneratia caseolaris) and pandan leaves (Pandanus amaryllifolius)

Plant-based antioxidant soap formulations need to continue to be developed. Soap formulated from extracts of pedada leaves (Sonneratia caseolaris) and pandan leaves (Pandanus amaryllifolius) has been observed using 5-15 mL acetone or ethanol solvents for pedada leaf extraction, and extract concentrations of 0-40% and cocamide-DEA 2-8% for pandan leaves. The formulation results obtained from observing soap products from pedada leaf and pandan leaf extracts have pH, foam stability, antioxidant activity, and detergency power that comply with standards. Contour plot analysis for both formulations shows that the pH of the soap will decrease as the amount of solvent used decreases. Meanwhile, the addition of cocamide DEA increases the pH of liquid soap. Foam stability increases with increasing solvent amount but slightly decreases with the addition of cocamide-DEA.

Enzymatic hydrolysis of white-cheek shark skin gelatin: Optimization, structural transformations, functional characteristics, and antioxidant potential

This study investigates the enzymatic hydrolysis of white-cheek shark (Carcharhinus dussumieri) skin gelatin using Alcalase to produce antioxidant peptides. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize enzyme-substrate ratio (E/S) and hydrolysis time. The optimal conditions, with an E/S of 4.8% for 133 min, achieved the highest degree of hydrolysis (DH) of 23.4%, as well as maximum DPPH radical scavenging activity (56.8%) and FRAP value (0.24 mg AAE/g). Subsequent evaluations of hydrolyzed (WCSG-H) and non-hydrolyzed gelatin (WCSG) revealed significant differences in their properties (p<0.05). Specifically, gel electrophoresis showed molecular weight fractions of 72–165 kDa for WCSG and <8 kDa for WCSG-H, while amino acid profiling indicated high levels of glycine, proline, and alanine in both samples. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy demonstrated that enzymatic hydrolysis led to a more disordered secondary structure in WCSG. Furthermore, WCSG exhibited superior emulsion activity, foaming capacity, and foam stability, though differences in emulsion stability were not statistically significant (p>0.05). In contrast, WCSG-H showed significantly higher solubility (97.7%) and antioxidant capacity (56.8% DPPH radical scavenging activity and FRAP of 0.24 mg AAE/g) compared to WCSG (85.22%, 52.82%, and 0.08 mg AAE/g, respectively). Therefore, these findings suggest that both WCSG and WCSG-H are promising natural antioxidants for functional food applications.