Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees Research Articles

Institutional Coadaptation Work: How Refugees and Provisioning Institutions Coadapt in Pursuit of Consumption Adequacy

Prior research on refugee migration documents the acculturation processes through which refugees adapt to the cultural context of the host society. In this research, the authors complement the insights from prior research by uncovering how the host society's provisioning institutions coadapt in response to the consumption adequacy needs of refugees. To understand these coadaptation practices, they gather qualitative data from low-income Sri Lankan Tamil refugees who were repatriated to India in the face of violent ethnic conflict. The data aid in theorizing the concept of institutional coadaptation work, defined as the dyadic coadaptation of refugees and a host society's provisioning institutions, to serve the consumption adequacy needs of refugees. This coadaptation perspective envisages change as a collective process in which agency is distributed among multiple actors in society. More specifically, this research provides focused policy recommendations explaining how the government, market, and community can work collaboratively to address consumption adequacy needs of refugees.

Lived experiences of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in the UK: Migration and identity.

Sri Lankan Tamil refugees (SLTRs) have lived in the United Kingdom in substantial numbers for about three decades. However, they remain under-represented in academic and public discourse, and little is known about their migration experiences. This study examined first-hand accounts of such experiences, with special attention paid to identity and acculturation. Data were collected through four semi-structured interviews and analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). The results suggest that SLTRs' experience of conflict as an imposed life disruption continues to shape their adaptation, identity, and meaning-making ("Afflicted life"). Changing social identities mediate protection from, as well as risk of, trauma. SLTRs try to remedy the socio-economic and emotional losses suffered in the conflict, but achieve only a partial compensation. Consequently their repair efforts are a source not only of positive emotions but also of dissatisfaction ("Living past"). Finally, participants' sense of belonging and quest for home represent a challenging socio-emotional process in which they continue to engage even decades after migration ("Continuing quest for home"). This nuanced analysis of how the past continues to shape lived experience, contributes to the under-developed literature on qualitative psychological investigations of acculturation, research on forced migration, and the establishment of IPA in social psychology.

Dilemma Over Repatriation - Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees In The Camps Of Tamil Nadu, India

A large number of Tamils had fled from Sri Lanka during the prolonged devastating ethnic war. According to a report of the ministry of Home Affairs, more than 3 lakhs Sri Lankan Tamil refugees entered India in different phases between 1983 and 2012. At present about one lakh refugees belonging to over 18,000 families are living in the state of Tamil Nadu, of whom 68,606 Sri Lankan Tamils are in 114 refugee camps. While 79,773 refugees were repatriated to Sri Lanka till 1995, some left to other countries on their own. After 1995, there is no organized repatriation. Indian government is reluctant to integrate the refugees into society. In the recent past, the delegations of India and Sri Lanka begin to discuss about the steps to be taken for the voluntary repatriation of refugees. Those who want to end their refugee status in India are willing to return home. Others want to remain in India. And many are unable to even decide whether to go back to Sri Lanka or to stay in India.

Language, Nationhood, and Isolation in the Lives of Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees in India

Divisions and resentments between the Tamils and the Sinhalese, two major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, led to the exodus of Tamils to the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu in India. From the beginning of the first major conflict in the early 1980s to the peak of the Eelam war in 2008-2009, it is estimated that over three millions lakh Sri Lankan Tamils have migrated to India, mostly to the southern state of Tamil Nadu. A majority of them were put in over 115 government-run refugee camps. These migrants preferred Tamil Nadu over other states in India for two major reasons: firstly, its proximity to the conflict area; secondly the common lin-guistic, cultural, and ethnic identities both the Sri Lankan Tamil migrants and the native Tamils share. The present paper is an attempt to understand the life of these refugees in Tamil Nadu, where they share many commonalities with the Tamil inhabitants. Earlier studies show that irrespective of these commonly shared identities between the migrant Tamil refugees from Sri Lanka and the native Tam-ils, a process leading to the repatriation of the former is preferred over their integration and assimilation with the latter. The present study attempts to capture the process of ‘othering' refugees although they share common linguistic and ethnic identities with the host community.

Rohingyas and Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in Tamil Nadu: a replicable model of semi-permanent resettlement in low-resource settings

PurposeAfter being forced to flee their respective home countries, Sri Lankan Tamils and Rohingya refugees resettled in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. This study attempts to explore the extent to which the state has provided means for integration in the absence of refugee protection laws and citizenship.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative research approach was used, including in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) with participants from both refugee groups between 2019 and early 2020. A representative sample of male and female Sri Lankan Tamils, living in or outside government camps, in urban and rural areas, was included (total number = 75). Similarly, a representative sample of the Rohingya refugee community was included for this study (n = 44).FindingsDespite constraints imposed by inadequate infrastructure, the study finds that Sri Lankan Tamils and Rohingyas both show to be progressively integrated in local society and have been capable of fulfilling some important basic livelihood needs, especially with regards to education. Some areas for improvement are identified as well, most urgently in terms of health and accommodation.Practical implicationsOther states in India, as well as in similar low-income countries (LICs), could learn from the current case study with regards to administering workable policies for small groups of refugees.Originality/valueWith minimal state facilitation and within the context of limited legal backing, refugee groups have somewhat managed to re-built their lives. This study identifies the threshold of requirements that make this achievement possible and suggests what more could be done to further advance the current state.

Statelessness And The Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019: The Case Of Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees

For decades since the Sri Lankan civil war, Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have lived as stateless persons in India. However, India does not recognise “refugees” and “stateless persons” as legally separate categories, and treats them in a common immigration system with “ foreigners”. This conflation of citizenship law with the immigration regime is a result of the introduction of the category of “illegal migrant” as a determinative tool of Indian citizenship. This paper explores recent shifts in Indian citizenship laws, which have been embroiled in the tension between jus soli and jus sanguinis bases of citizenship, particularly with the category of “illegal migrant” and the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019, and their impact on Sri Lankan Tamil refugees’ citizenship. This paper finds that despite the influence of international human rights, formal citizenship continues to be the clinching factor in Sri Lankan Tamil refugees’ quality and security of life in India today – an echo of Hannah Arendt’s conception of the “right to have rights”, by which she meant that the right to citizenship is a gateway for an individual to access all other rights. Against this backdrop, this paper suggests interim solutions for Sri Lankan Tamil refugees to secure formal citizenship in India, and in particular, the role of courts in crafting jurisprudence that would support the alleviation of their statelessness. In the same breath, this paper strongly argues in favour of, first, the need for a forward-looking reconceptualization of Indian citizenship laws based on the jus soli principle; and second, a recognition of India’s burden under the UN Conventions on statelessness to reduce and prevent statelessness, particularly through eliminating documentation-heavy citizenship determinations.

Manifestation of Atithi Devo Bhavah maxim on Sri Lankan Tamil refugees treatment in India

This study discusses the reflection of Indian’s Athithi Devo Bhava policy towards Sri Lankan Tamil refugees during the hostility staged in the island since 1983. The enduring Indian practices of tolerance and goodwill resulted in following a benevolent policy towards all those who sought asylum. In ancient India, there were four cultural maxims: (1) Matru Devo Bhava, your mother is like God; (2) Pitru Devo Bhava, your father is like God; (3) Acharya Devo Bhava, your teacher is like God, and (4) Athithi Devo Bhava, your guest is like God. The refugee has considered as an Athithi (guest) to the country and treated them as God. India has accorded asylum to more than 25 million people in spite of the absence of strong refugee laws, but the treatment has been given on an ad hoc basis. The study is descriptive in nature. The information was collected from secondary sources. It underlines that the Indian government has been providing accommodation, food, and security to refugees. Subsequently, the services enjoyed by the Indian citizens are extended to refugees. There is a harmony between Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils in language and culture. Tamils in India and the Indian government has treated the refugee as a guest.

To be or not to be a refugee? Reflections on refugeehood and citizenship among Sri Lankan Tamils in India

ABSTRACTThis article looks at citizenship from a position of liminality – that of Sri Lankan Tamils in India. It is based on fieldwork conducted with different groups of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and repatriates in and around Keezhputhupattu camp (Tamil Nadu), in Ceylon Quarter (Pondicherry) and in Chennai. No matter what their legal status is, they all position themselves on the refugee-citizen spectrum and, by doing so, they find themselves standing in-between its two opposed poles. From there they build their political subjectivities by negotiating, appropriating and sometimes rejecting Indian citizenship and Sri Lankan refugeehood. It is through their relationship to this position of in-betweenness that, we argue, citizenship, but also refugeehood, acquire new meanings.

Diaspora and Development

Preface. Foreword Oommen Chandy. Acknowledgements. 1. Diaspora and Development: Critical Issues Dilip Ratha and Sonia Plaza 2. Diaspora and Development: Case Study of the Indo-EU Diaspora Alwyn Didar Singh 3. Diaspora and Development: Theoretical Perspectives Amba Pande 4. Diaspora, Transnationalism and Development Ajaya Kumar Sahoo 5. Engaging the Indian Diaspora for Development Smita Tiwari 6. Professional Diaspora Networks and Philanthropy in the Healthcare Sector T. L. S. Bhaskar 7. Return of Diasporas: India's Growth Story vs Global Crisis S. Irudaya Rajan, V., Kurusu and Saramma Panicker C. K. 8. Punjabi Diaspora and Educational Development Kaveri Qureshi and Filippo Osella 9. Land, Migration and Identity: Changing Punjabi Transnationalism Steve Taylor 10. Diaspora and Remittances Milly Sil 11. Future Diasporas? International Student Migration from India to the UK S. Irudaya Rajan and Neha Wadhawan 12. Ethnic Indians in India's Look East Policy Amit Singh 13. The Indian Diaspora in Oman Veronika Deffner 14. Indian Migrant Experiences in Oman and Bahrain Radhika Kanchana and S. Irudaya Rajan 15. Nitaqat - Second Wave of Saudization: Is it an Answer to the Domestic Discontent? Zakir Hussain 16. Kerala Emigration to Saudi Arabia: Prospects under the Nitaqat Law K. C. Zachariah, S. Irudaya Rajan and Jolin Joseph 17. Migration and Inequality Raju John 18. International Trade in Health Services: An Indian Experience Soumi Roy Chowdhury 19. Capability Quotient of the North-Eastern Out-Migrants Pinak Sarkar 20. Living Conditions of Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees in India C. Valatheeswaran.

“If One Does Not Fulfil His Duties, He Must Not Be a Man”: Masculinity, Mental Health and Resilience Amongst Sri Lankan Tamil Refugee Men in Canada

Refugee men face unique mental health stressors in the pre- and post-migratory periods. However, there has been little in-depth research on the mental health of refugee men in Canada. Given this situation, the overall aim of this study is to explore the psycho-social experience of Sri Lankan Tamil refugee men in Canada. Particular objectives include better understanding any inter-relationship between war-trauma, migration, concepts of masculinity and mental health. The study employed a two-phase participatory action research design based on the grounded theory approach. Phase 1 involved an 8-month ethnography conducted in Sri Lanka. Phase 2 consisted of qualitative interviews with 33 Sri Lankan Tamil refugee men living in Canada. Consistent with grounded theory, analysis was conducted inductively and iteratively. Four specific themes emerged from the data (i) gendered helplessness of war: participants commonly reported ongoing negative rumination regarding experiences where they were unable to adequately protect loved ones from physical suffering or death; (ii) reduced capacity: participants frequently felt unable to fulfill culturally sanctioned duties, such as supporting their family, due to ongoing pre- and post-migratory stress; (iii) redundancy: many participants felt that they were useless in Canada, as they could not fulfill typical masculine social roles (e.g. provider) due to factors such as unemployment and underemployment; (iv) intimate criticism: some participants reported that their spouses would often attempt to 'shame' them into greater achievement by constantly reminding them of their 'failures'. Many found this distressing. These various failures culminated in a state that we label "depleted masculinity", which participants linked to emotional and behavioural problems. Participants reported that they actively tried to rebuild their masculine identity, for example by adopting leadership roles in community organizations, which fostered resiliency. Results suggest a need to review and rebuild masculine identity to support the mental health of refugee men.

Battered but bold: Sri Lankan Tamil refugee war experiences, camp challenges and resilience

PurposeThe civil war prompted many Tamils to flee Sri Lanka as refugees. Several researchers have documented psychological distress and trauma among Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, but the literature lacks sufficient discussion of resilience among this population. Although Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have experienced conflict and loss, they have also demonstrated positive adaptation following these challenges. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachThe present study used an ecological approach, in which the effect of the environment on a person is regarded as significant, to explore resilience among Sri Lankan Tamils living in refugee camps in India.FindingsThrough a qualitative investigation of refugee experiences of war and camp life, the authors developed a conceptual framework for understanding individual and collective resilience among refugees.Research limitations/implicationsAdditionally, the results of this study need to be interpreted with caution because participants were camp refugees, which may limit the applicability of these results with refugees who live in different settings.Practical implicationsThe current research results show that intervention programs should have multiple components, including trauma intervention to address the individual and community psychological and psychiatric effects of war and migration experiences and psychosocial interventions to address individual, family, community dynamics and daily stressors.Social implicationsThe study participants stated that Sri Lankan Tamil refugees are using their resilience traits including will power, positive talk, practical solutions, social support, religion and social networks to remake their broken souls.Originality/valueFuture studies need to be conducted with other refugee group to validate the findings of the paper.

Unravelling Memories of Family Separation Among Sri Lankan Tamils Resettled in Australia, 1983–2000

Using life story interviews with 10 Sri Lankan Tamil refugees resettled in Australia, this article shows how family separation in experiences of civil war and resettlement produce long-lasting and emotional memories of fear and determination. The findings explore how young Tamil people gave meaning to family when they interacted with key individuals and negotiated cultural practices in different spaces. Moreover, intergenerational family narratives emerged as a key practice through which Tamils preserved the family identity. The analysis demonstrates how and when family separation can manifest in personal memories to reveal stories of agency and resilience. A critical engagement of the past can help to better understand concepts of childhood in relation to family and family separation in war affected diaspora communities.

Health seeking narratives of unwell Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in Melbourne Australia.

Sri Lankan Tamil refugees are among the largest group of refugees to resettle in Australia in the last decade. The aim of this study is to characterise the narratives of health-seeking among unwell Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Drawing on a qualitative, phenomenological perspective, we conducted in-depth interviews in Tamil and English with 12 participants who identified as being unwell for 6 months or more. Findings revealed three narratives of health-seeking: the search for the 'good life' that was lost or never experienced, seeking help from familiar channels in an unfamiliar context, and the desire for financial and occupational independence. These three narratives are undergirded by the metanarrative of a hope-filled recovery. These narratives of Tamil refugees' lived experience provide new insights into clinical care and health service delivery.

Identifying Daily Stress, Family Conflict and Health Care Resource Gaps at the Sri Lankan Tamil Refugee Camps in India: Implications for Developing an Evidence-based Family Intervention for Refugees

Identifying Daily Stress, Family Conflict and Health Care Resource Gaps at the Sri Lankan Tamil Refugee Camps in India: Implications for Developing an Evidence-based Family Intervention for Refugees

Connecting Homeland and Borders Using Mobile Telephony: Exploring the State of Tamil Refugees in Indian Camps

Abstract This article attempts to explain how mobile phones influence how Sri Lankan Tamil refugees perceive cultural, psychological, and physical borders. Grounded in the information and communications technology (ICT) literature and diaspora communications, the lead author conducted twelve in-depth interviews with Mandapam camp residents in Tamilnadu, India, during Summer 2013. Results indicate that while camp refugees considered Sri Lanka their “motherland,” fear of government surveillance coupled with skepticism regarding the peace process impedes their return, even though official hostilities have ceased. However, mobile communications allow them to create a virtual community, which is important because camp life essentially separates them from both India and Sri Lanka.

Connecting Homeland and Borders Using Mobile Telephony: Exploring the State of Tamil Refugees in Indian Camps

Abstract This article attempts to explain how mobile phones influence how Sri Lankan Tamil refugees perceive cultural, psychological, and physical borders. Grounded in the information and communications technology (ICT) literature and diaspora communications, the lead author conducted twelve in-depth interviews with Mandapam camp residents in Tamilnadu, India, during Summer 2013. Results indicate that while camp refugees considered Sri Lanka their “motherland,” fear of government surveillance coupled with skepticism regarding the peace process impedes their return, even though official hostilities have ceased. However, mobile communications allow them to create a virtual community, which is important because camp life essentially separates them from both India and Sri Lanka.

Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees in India: Conceptual Framework of Repatriation Success


 
 Repatriation to Sri Lanka has become a primary challenge to Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in Indian refugee camps, and a matter of significant public discussion in India and Sri Lanka. Anxiety about repatriation among Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and lack of initiation from the Sri Lankan government threatens the development of a coherent repatriation strategy. This article proposes a conceptual framework of repatriation success for Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, which the Sri Lankan government, non-governmental agencies, and Sri Lankan Tamil refugees may use to develop a concrete strategy for repatriation. Based upon the study results of two of the authors’ repatriation studies, this article identifies and describes the four key concepts of the repatriation framework: livelihood development, language and culture awareness, social relationships, and equal citizenship within a nation.
 

"Rather Than Talking in Tamil, They Should Be Talking to Tamils": Sri Lankan Tamil Refugee Readiness for Repatriation

Following the end of the Sri Lankan civil war in 2009, Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in India are being expected to repatriate to their home country. Although voluntary repatriation has long been seen as the most effective and durable response to forced displacement, it can only be carried out by obtaining informed consent from refugees. This study examined Sri Lankan Tamil refugees’ readiness, support, concerns, resources, and strategies for repatriation. We found that participants were appreciative of the Indian Government’s support, but the Sri Lankan Government’s lack of a concrete repatriation plan was concerning. Lack of resources and infrastructure development, and lack of interventions to address intergenerational conflict are the main repatriation challenges identified by participants. Study implications for policy, practice, and research are also discussed. The study recommends an enhanced effort to restore the trust between State and citizens which is vital for a successful implementation of repatriation to Sri Lanka.

Predictors of the integration of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees in Canada: pre-migration adversity, mental health, personal attributes, and post-migration experience

Purpose – Refugees integrate less successfully than other immigrants. Pre-migration stress, mental disorder and lack of human capital are the most popular explanations, but these propositions have received little empirical testing. The current study of Sri Lankan Tamils in Toronto, Canada, examines the respective contributions of pre-migration adversity, human capital, mental health and social resources in predicting integration. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – Participants are a probability sample of 1,603 Sri Lankan Tamils living in Toronto, Canada. The team, with a community advisory council, developed structured interviews containing information about pre- and post-migration stressors, coping strategies, and family, community, and institutional support. The questionnaire included the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview module for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Interviews were translated, back-translated and administered by bilingual interviewers. Findings – Two dimensions of integration emerged from a factor analysis of integration-related items: economic and psychosocial. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that PTSD militated against refugee economic integration, whereas pre-migration adversity (but not PTSD) compromised psychosocial integration. On both measures, increasing length of residence in Canada, and gender (male) were predictors of good integration, whereas age at arrival had an inverse relationship with integration. Religiosity had a positive effect on psychosocial integration but a negative effect on economic. Favourable perceptions of the health care system predicted economic integration and non-family support predicted psychosocial integration. Originality/value – Results underline the importance of studying integration as a multifaceted phenomenon, help explain why refugees integrate less successfully than other immigrants, and highlight the importance of including mental health and mental health-related issues in integration discourse.

“Rather than talking in Tamil, they should be talking to Tamils': Sri Lankan Tamil refugee readiness for repatriation

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