Sprinkler Irrigation System Research Articles

INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES IN SPRINKLER IRRIGATION: AN OVERVIEW

The overuse of water in conventional irrigation at the farm level is a global issue that can be addressed by improving irrigation techniques. Sprinkler irrigation can reduce water losses by carefully planning the crop, soil, landscape, and weather conditions, as well as installing the proper sprinkler hardware. The application efficiency of sprinkler systems may be enhanced when these systems are coupled with automation for precise irrigation. Sprinkler irrigation has advanced significantly, but new ideas and current practices are driving further progress. These novel ideas include low-pressure sprinklers, smart controllers, fertigation, water-pesticide integrated sprinkler systems, and variable-rate irrigation. The objective of this work is to highlight the introduction of innovative technologies to optimize sprinkler irrigation systems. Suggestions for the future development of sprinkler irrigation technology are offered to ensure its long-term viability.

Nitrogen requirements of canola (Brassica napus L.) at sustained deficit irrigation levels in central Free State, South Africa

In South Africa canola (Brassica napus L.) is cultivated in rotation with wheat under winter rainfall in the Western Cape province. Expansion of the crop to the other eight provinces is propagated to reduce a shortage of locally produced plant oils. At the same time, canola may serve as a rotational crop for wheat in these summer rainfall provinces. In central Free State, agronomic information for canola production is lacking. An experiment with a line source sprinkler irrigation system was therefore conducted to establish the influence of water application levels (175, 233, 295, 351 and 420 mm) in combination with nitrogen (N) application rates (0, 70, 140, 210 and 280 kg ha−1) on the branches, pods and seeds per canola plant. The biomass and seed yields of canola were also measured, allowing calculation of harvest indices. All six variables were strongly influenced by the interaction of water and N applications. An optimal seed yield of 2.907 kg ha−1 was estimated with a 351 mm water application and a 280 kg ha−1 N application. This resulted in a water use efficiency of 8.28 kg seed ha−1 mm−1 water and a nitrogen use efficiency of 10.38 kg seed kg−1 N.

Performance Evaluation of Semi-Solid Set Sprinkler Irrigation System at Field Scale

Performance Evaluation of Semi-Solid Set Sprinkler Irrigation System at Field Scale

Application of the AquaCrop model and response surface method to determine the optimum irrigation water and seeding density for wheat growing under sprinkler irrigation system

AbstractThis study aimed to determine the optimal seeding density and irrigation water for maximizing wheat yield, water productivity and income using the AquaCrop model and response surface method (RSM). The AquaCrop model was calibrated and validated using experimental data from two successive growing seasons. The AquaCrop simulations for grain yield, biomass, soil water content, evapotranspiration and canopy cover were satisfactory and acceptable. After calibration, the model simulated the grain yield for 47 years with five seeding densities and four irrigation schedules. By applying RSM to the AquaCrop model outputs over 47 years, it was found that irrigation water amounts of 747, 198 and 747 mm, along with seeding densities of 211, 188 and 208 kg ha−1, respectively, maximized the wheat yield, water productivity and profit per unit area. A seeding density of 162.4 kg ha−1 combined with a total of 350 mm of irrigation water and rainfall resulted in the highest water productivity. This study demonstrated the reliability of the AquaCrop model in predicting wheat grain yield under various irrigation and seeding density conditions, providing valuable insights for farmers and agricultural experts to optimize crop productivity and profitability.

A holistic simulation model of solid-set sprinkler irrigation systems for precision irrigation

A holistic simulation model of solid-set sprinkler irrigation systems for precision irrigation

Analysis of the Status of Irrigation Management in North Carolina

Farmers in North Carolina are turning to irrigation to reduce the impacts of droughts and rainfall variability on agricultural production. Droughts, rainfall variability, and the increasing demand for food, feed, fiber, and fuel necessitate the urgent need to provide North Carolina farmers with tools to improve irrigation management and maximize water productivity. This is only possible by understanding the current status of irrigated agriculture in the state and investigating its potential weaknesses and opportunities. Thus, the objective of this study was to perform a comprehensive analysis of the current state of irrigation management in North Carolina based on 15-year data from the Irrigation and Water Management Survey by the United States Department of Agriculture–National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA-NASS). The results indicated a reduction in irrigation acres in the state. Also, most farms in the state have shifted to efficient sprinkler irrigation systems from gravity-fed surface irrigation systems. However, many farms in North Carolina still rely on traditional irrigation scheduling methods, such as examining crop conditions and the feel of soil in deciding when to irrigate. Hence, there are opportunities for enhancing the adoption of advanced technologies like soil moisture sensors and weather data to optimize irrigation schedules for improving water efficiency and crop production. Precision techniques and data-based solutions empower farmers to make informed, real-time decisions, optimizing water use and resource allocation to match the changing environmental conditions. The insights from this study provide valuable information for policymakers, extension services, and farmers to make informed decisions to optimize agricultural productivity and conserve water resources.

تقييم أداء أنظمة ري مختلفة تعمل بالطاقة الشمسية وتأثيرها على إنتاجية الباقلاء (Vicia Faba…L)

An experiment was carried out at Al-Raed Research Station, which is located on the Baghdad-Anbar Road. It was conducted during the winter season of 2022-2023, in order to evaluate the performance of different solar irrigation systems and their effect on bean yield (Vicia faba… L). A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was used with three replications. The experiment consists of three factors. first factor was the solar panel type with two levels: mono-crystalline and poly-crystalline. Second factor was the irrigation system with two levels: drip and sprinkler irrigation system. The third factor was the distances between the sub-lines with three levels (40, 60, 80 cm). The results show that the monocrystalline achieved the best result by achieving the highest irrigation system efficiency (76.31%), and highest seeds yield total (6618 Kg/ha) with minimum operational costs (0.0252 $/KWh). The drip irrigation had the highest irrigation system efficiency (84.40%), and highest total seeds yield (6077 Kg/ha) with minimum operational costs (0.0340 $/ KWh). The distance (40cm) between the sublines had the highest irrigation system efficiency (76.83 %), with less operational costs (0.0398 $ / KWh).

Accurate model development for predicting sprinkler water distribution on undulating and mountainous terrain

The hilly terrain modifies the droplet landing positions in comparison to flat ground, complicating the prediction of sprinkler water distribution on such uneven regions. Utilizing a digital elevation model combined with droplet dynamics and evaporation models, droplet landing positions were calculated on both flat and uneven terrains. From the droplet landing positions and the corresponding water application rates on flat terrain, the water application rate on hilly terrains was deduced using the principle of water volume conservation. Subsequently, a software application was developed to assist in this prediction. Using the radial water distribution data from an individual sprinkler under various operating pressures and the elevation data of a hill, the software predicts the water distribution for either an individual sprinkler or an entire solid-set sprinkler irrigation system on the hill. This allows for the calculation of the average water application rate (h¯) and distribution uniformity (UCS) for combined sprinklers. The simulated water application rate on hilly terrains was validated using an experimental platform that replicates the sprinkler arrangement on a hill, devoid of plant canopy. Our findings indicate that the simulated water application rate for a sprinkler on hilly terrain aligns closely with the observed values, achieving a confidence coefficient (c) of 0.96. The developed software reliably predicts sprinkler water distribution on hilly terrains with significant accuracy for the conditions studied. We compared the UCS of the flat, hilly slope, and homogeneous slope terrains and found that the hilly slope better reflects the uneven water distribution owing to the undulating characteristics of the hilly terrain.

Enhancing Tomato Production by Using Non-Conventional Water Resources within Integrated Sprinkler Irrigation Systems in Arid Regions

This research evaluated the importance of establishing an integrated sprinkler irrigation design connected to fish farm ponds in order to achieve environmental and financial benefits. To achieve the aim of the study, two field experiments were conducted at a private farm in the Nubaria area of Beheira Governorate during the 2022 and 2023 seasons to quantify all the benefits from using fish water effluent (FWE) in irrigation. The obtained results indicated that the effluent could represent a good source of irrigation and bio-fertilization. The yield of tomato was higher when using FWE for irrigation compared with using groundwater for irrigation (IW). This was due to the additional amounts of dissolved bio-nitrogen along with other nutrients present in the FWE. The proportion of dissolved nitrogen added by using FWE was 22.3 kg nitrogen per hectare in 2022 and 24.6 kg nitrogen per hectare in 2023, in addition to some other major elements such as phosphorus and potassium, which are also among the main nutrients needed by crops. It has also been noticed that the fertility of the sandy soil increased with the use of FWE for irrigation. One of the most important results was the possibility of reducing the addition of nitrogen mineral fertilizers by 25%, thus saving on N fertilizers when growing tomato. In addition to the vitality of the FWE and its macro- and microelements, algae, microorganisms, and other organic materials, the use of this type of water as an alternative source for irrigation, along with the reduction in the amount of added mineral fertilizers, will reduce the degree of groundwater contamination with mineral fertilizers and increase the income of farmers. It was also observed that the air temperature decreased during the growing season when compared with the temperature of uncultivated surrounding areas.

A Cheap and Basic Solar-Powered Smart Irrigation System Proposal for Medium and Small-Scale Farming

Nowadays, the need for water consumption for agricultural production is increasing. Economical use of water has become mandatory both to increase agricultural product yield and to eliminate the damage caused by excessive irrigation to the soil. Preferred instead of traditional irrigation, Drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and pivot irrigation systems are now being replaced by “Smart Irrigation Systems” that save more water. In this study, a basic solar energy-supported mobile phone-controlled smart irrigation system, recommended for medium and small-scale agricultural enterprises, is proposed. In the study, the basic elements that make up the system, their approximate prices and circuit connection ways are shown. In the study, the cost, water, energy consumption, and payback periods of smart irrigation systems with traditional drip, sprinkler, and pivot irrigation methods were compared. As a result, although the initial investment cost in smart irrigation systems seems relatively high, it offers significant advantages in terms of resource efficiency and environmental sustainability. It is a fact that modern irrigation systems will make important contributions to national economies in the long term by increasing agricultural production and saving energy and water.

Analysis of energy input-output in direct seeded and transplantation cultivation of rice under different irrigation systems

Energy input-output assessment for crop production processes is becoming increasingly important due to increased energy demand. This study explored the energy consumption for puddled transplanted (PTR), un-puddled transplanted (UPTR), and direct-seeded rice (DSR) cultivation methods under sprinkler, flood and drip irrigation systems in Golestan province, Iran, during 2019 and 2020. The energy of inputs and outputs were calculated using energy equivalents. Then, using input energy values, the global warming potential (GWP) was determined based on the equivalent of carbon dioxide (CO2). According to the results, the highest amount of yield was obtained for permanent flood irrigation with PTR. The results of mean comparison of cultivation method showed that the highest and lowest amounts of energy input were obtained for PTR (32418 MJ/ha) and UPTR (28175 MJ/ha), respectively. Also, the amounts of indices of energy use efficiency (EUE), energy productivity (EP) and net energy (NE) in DSR were lower than transplanted treatments. The results of mean comparison showed that the lowest amount of GWP was related to UPTR. The results of this study showed that drip irrigation with UPTR cultivation (due to less energy input and a yield close to PTR) can be a technology to save water and energy.

Response of grain amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) to irrigation schedules under sprinkler irrigation

A field experiment was conducted during winter (rabi) seasons of 2019–20 and 2020–21 at the Centre for Crop Improvement, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Banaskantha, Gujarat to study the response of grain amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacs L.) to irrigation schedules under sprinkler irrigation system. The experiment was conducted in a randomised block design (RBD) comprised of 6 irrigation treatments, viz. I0 , Surface irrigation; I1 , Control (only pre-sowing irrigation); I2 , Sprinkler irrigation at 0.2 IW: CPE; I3 , Sprinkler irrigation at 0.4 IW: CPE; I4 ,Sprinkler irrigation at 0.6 IW: CPE; and I5 ,Sprinkler irrigation at 0.8 IW:CPE with 4 replications. The results revealed that application of irrigation at IW: CPE ratio of 0.8 had significant effect on plant height, inflorescence length (83.4 cm), grain yield (1,625 kg/ha) and straw yield (7,497 kg/ha) compared with control treatment (surface irrigation). Treatment 0.8 IW: CPE resulted in the 28.15% higher grain yield than the control. The highest water-use efficiency (WUE) (12.8 kg/ha-mm) was achieved by the treatment I1 (only pre-sowing irrigation). Consumptive use (mm) was found increased with increase in irrigation scheduling from I0 to I5 . The highest consumptive use of 179.3 mm was recorded under the treatment of 0.8 IW: CPE ratio. Irrigation at 0.8 IW: CPE ratio fetched highest net returns of `54,701/ha, with benefit: cost (B:C) ratio 3.06 during both the years in pooled analysis.

AquaCrop Model for Evaluation of the Water Productivity of Bread Wheat has Affected Modern Irrigation System and Water Salinity in Sandy Soil

AquaCrop is a very famous model in the world for evaluating the crop water productivity. FAO has developed the AquaCrop model as a leading and powerful scientific tool for simulating the response of different field crops to managing quantitative and qualitative irrigation. Two field experiments were carried out during winter seasons 2020/2021 and 2021/2022 at the Research and Production Station, National Research Centre, El-Nubaria, El-Behira Governorate, Egypt. to evaluate yield and yield component for two bread wheat varieties (Giza 171 and Misr 1) under sprinkler and drip irrigation systems with using four concentrations of water salinity irrigation. A split-plot design with three replications was used. Wheat were randomly distributed in the main plots while, while water salinity treatments occupied the sub-plots in both seasons. Results found that the simulated and observed values of water productivity were rather well in agreement for the salinity water levels treatments SWLT. This means that differences in canopy cover CC, yield and water productivity of bread wheat crop had significant effect on the calibration results. There is an inverse relationship between the water productivity and salinity water levels treatments and bread wheat varieties, while a direct correlation was found between water productivity and irrigation systems. It could be concluded that using sprinkler irrigation systems with S1 and S2 of SWLT and Misr 1 varitey, and drip irrigation system with S1 and S2 of SWLT and Misr 1 varitiey. the maximum of water productivity due to that there is a direct relationship between the study factors, the characteristics of the canopy cover growth and yield of the bread wheat plants, the more measured values will be simulated by the Aquacrop model.

Variable Irrigation Phasing and Establishment Techniques in Chickpea (Cicer areitinum L.) under Sprinkler and Flood Irrigation System in Tarai Region of Uttarakhand

Variable Irrigation Phasing and Establishment Techniques in Chickpea (Cicer areitinum L.) under Sprinkler and Flood Irrigation System in Tarai Region of Uttarakhand

The effect of fertilizer injection on the mixing patterns of lateral‐move sprinkler irrigation systems with double wings

AbstractIn irrigation systems, water–fertilizer mixing within pipelines profoundly affects the fertilization process and strategy development. Taking irrigation machine pipelines as the research object, a numerical simulation method is used to investigate the mixing and distribution patterns of water and fertilizer in pipelines under a steady oscillatory flow fertilization mode with different injection positions, angles, flow rates (Q) and fertilization ratios (δ). Increasing the flow rate initially increased the fertilizer concentration in the lateral pipes, but further increasing the mainline central injection flow rate significantly reduced the concentration in the lateral pipes. For δ = 2%, elevating Q from 6 to 8 m3/h increased the average fertilizer concentration in the lateral pipes by 0.4%. However, a subsequent increase to Q = 10 m3/h led to a 1% decrease. In left‐side injection, lateral pipes on the same side as the injection pipe had considerably higher concentrations than those on the opposite side. In central injection, larger inclination angles increase the lateral pipe fertilizer concentration, while in left‐side injection, 60°‐downward injection results in the best lateral pipe fertilizer concentration. The above‐mentioned results can provide valuable insights for the design of injection ports on lateral‐move sprinkler irrigation systems.

Influence of the sampling time interval of canopy temperature on the dynamic zoning of variable rate irrigation

Generating spatial distribution maps of canopy temperature (Tc) is the basis for the dynamic management of a variable rate irrigation (VRI) system based on infrared thermometers (IRTs). To improve the accuracy of management zone delineation based on Tc maps for summer maize and winter wheat with IRTs mounted on a moving sprinkler irrigation system, the influence of sampling time interval of Tc was studied and the VRI prescription maps were compared with those obtained from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) thermal imaging on the same day. The experimental sites were located in Shunyi, Beijing, for summer maize and in Dacaozhuang, Hebei Province, for winter wheat. The sampling time intervals were selected as 0.5–26 min. The results demonstrated that the nRMSE of the predicted and measured values for Tc increased and that their correlation coefficient decreased with the extension of the sampling time interval. When the sampling time interval ranged from 0.5 to 5 min, the correlation coefficient and nRMSE between the predicted and measured values for Tc changed little, and the overlap percentage of the same management zones delineated with NRCT between 5 min and the minimum sampling time interval (0.5 or 1 min) was greater than 79%. For any two measuring dates of Tc, their overlap percentage changed greatly, with a maximum value of 67% for NRCT. The average irrigation amount based on the prescription maps of the IRTs system and UAV thermal imaging system on the three observation days was equal. Our results demonstrated techniques to collect IRTs data and to generate VRI prescription map based on this data, and a sampling time interval of no more than 5 minutes was recommended for Tc.

Irrigation Water Management in a Water-Scarce Environment in the Context of Climate Change

Climate change has a considerable impact on irrigated agriculture, which is vital for food and fiber production. In this study, in the context of climate change, simulation model CROPWAT 8 was employed to compute the reference evapotranspiration, and net irrigation water requirement for wheat, barley, maize, sugar beet, potato, tomato, and date palm. In addition, the WaterGEMS model was utilized to design a new sprinkler irrigation system to run long-term simulations of hydraulic behavior within pressurized pipe networks to irrigate 43 acres for two arid sites (Siwa Oasis and West Elminya fields) inside the 1.5-million-acre groundwater irrigation project in the Egyptian western desert. Five scenarios for climate change were employed in the current (1991–2023), representative concentration path (RCP) 8.5 greenhouse gas emission scenarios for the 2040s, 2060s, 2080s, and 2100s. Mean ETo values for the current scenario show 4.56 and 5.7 mm for the Siwa Oasis and West Elminya fields, respectively. The climate changes cause an increase of the reference evapotranspiration by 4.6, 5.9, 9.4, and 12.7% for RCP: 8.5 greenhouse gas emissions for the 2040s, 2060s, 2080s, and 2100s scenarios, respectively, for the Siwa Oasis field. On the other hand, an increased ratio for the reference evapotranspiration by 4.2, 5.4, 8.6, and 11.6% was observed for the scenarios in the West Elminya field, respectively. The designed sprinkler system indicated a capacity of 111.4 m3 h−1 and 167 m3 h−1 for Siwa and West Elminya fields, respectively. The study suggests using crop patterns for wheat, barley, potato, and sugar beet to save irrigation water.Graphical abstract

Dinámica del desarrollo vegetativo del cultivo de banano mediante estimulación radical bajo riego por aspersión

The production of bananas (Musa spp.) represents the most important item for the economy of the Province of El Oro. The penetration of the root system in this crop is weak, so the distribution is related to the texture and structure of the soil. This study was to evaluate the effect of different root stimulation programs on the vegetative development of banana crops under a sprinkler irrigation system. The research work was developed in the "Adrianita" farm in the Province of El Oro - Ecuador, which is located in the localities of Sabalucal-Parish Barbones del Canton el Guabo, a completely randomized block design (DBCA) was carried out, applying six treatments, T1 (Control), T2 (Carving), T3 (Rooting based on seaweed), T4 (Humic Acids), T5 (Rooting + Humic Acids), and T6 (Herculization), divided into four blocks, the Data were statistically analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA), using the Agrostat® software (Barbosa and Maldonado, 2010). The results obtained were plant height 3.59 m in T6, pseudostem diameter 90.61 cm in T6, number of leaves 8.07 in T1, chlorophyll levels 52.85 (SPAD) in T6, total root mass 85.92 g in T6.

IoT-enable smart agriculture using multiple sensors for sprinkle irrigation systems

The Internet of Things (IoT) has experienced considerable expansion and development in recent years, offering a multitude of prospects for technological progress in the agricultural sector, with the aim of improving efficiency and providing help to farmers on a global scale. This paper outlines the conceptualization and development of an smart sprinkle irrigation system that incorporates the Internet of Things (IoT) technology, leveraging the ESP32 platform. The aim of this study is to develop a smart irrigation-based internet of things utilizing multiple sensors for sprinkle irrigation system. This will be achieved by integrating several sensors to monitor and control the irrigation process. The facilitation of communication between the ESP32 device and the Blynk application simplifies the acquisition of irrigation data, initiation of plant watering, deactivation of the automated watering functionality, and generation of graphical representations derived from sensor measurements. The irrigation system that has been created encompasses three distinct ways, particularly manual, semi-automatic, and automatic. The manual irrigation method enables users to directly administer irrigation, but the semi-automatic method necessitates users to select the timing and length of watering. The automated approach employs irrigation systems that are capable of responding to soil moisture levels, triggering the activation of the pump when the moisture content decreases beyond a predetermined threshold. The device is equipped with a pH sensor that enables the monitoring of soil pH values, a critical factor in facilitating optimal plant growth and development. The system has the capability to present the rate at which water flows and the total amount of water utilized in a singular irrigation event, as well as to aggregate the water consumption across many irrigation instances. In general, the experiments demonstrate the satisfactory performance of the three irrigation systems, including the capability to manually initiate the pump.

Development and Evaluation of a Pilot Scale GravityCentre Pivot Sprinkler Irrigation System under Okra (Abelmoschusesculentus) Cultivation

A pilot scale gravity-centre pivot sprinkler irrigation system (GCPSIS) was designed, constructed and evaluated at two operating speeds on an Okra field at the experimental field of the Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering of Joseph Sarwuan Tarka University Makurdi, Analysis of variance (ANOVA)at P(0.05)from the data sets showed mean Soil Wetting Depth (SWD) ranging between 7.75±0.35 to 13.75±035cm/hr and 5.90±0.14 to 3.15±0.49cm/hr at speeds 5 and 7 rpm respectively and were not significantly different both in speeds, orientation and distances from the pivot station. The mean Soil Moisture Content (SMC) was 15.95 ±6.30 and 11.78 ±1.81% at 21-40cm depth at 5rpm and 7rpm respectively. The average Soil Bulk Density (SBD) at 0-20, and 21-40cm soil depth was1.23+0.5g/cm3 and 1.23±0.13g/cm3 respectively at 5rpm indicating a higher variability. At 7rpm mean values were 1,31±0.06 and 1.28+0.06g/cm3 at 0-20, and 21-40cm soil depth respectively indicating similar variability at both depths. Both speed and depth were not significant with respect to the SBD but speed was significant for SMC. Application Efficiency (Ea), Coefficient of Uniformity (CU), Distribution Uniformity (DU) along the pivot lateral complied with acceptable standards and were 77.67, 45.35 and 85.80 % respectively at 5rpm and 86.83, 44.89 and 94.03% at 7rpm respectively. The and Nozzles Discharge (ND) was highest (9.12 L/min) at the nozzle closest to the pivot station, high (9.00 L/min) at the middle nozzle and low (8.94 L/min) at the nozzle at the end of the lateral line in the first week and decreased slightly up to week five due to clogging.