Rules Of Sport Research Articles

International sports federations as de facto lawmakers: Queer-feminist explorations of the gendered power of sports law

Abstract This article analyses the law-making power of international sports federations, with a specific focus on their authority of shaping global norms on gender. It explores a variety of international sporting rules from feminist and queer perspectives. These include the ban of rainbow armbands at the 2022 FIFA (Men’s) World Cup, rules on the participation of transgender persons in rugby, gendered and racialized uniform regulations in sports, and the Semenya case concerning the sports participation of women with variations in sex characteristics The analysis asserts that despite being non-state actors, international sports federations are de facto international lawmakers that disseminate hegemonic gender norms reflecting cis-hetero-sexism and white body norms. However, analysing the Semenya case and the decision of the Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights in the case shows that the law-making power of international sports federations in shaping gender norms is not absolute but embedded in a transnational network of norms. The article concludes that subjecting international sports federations to a feminist, queer, and anti-racist legal analysis assists in understanding how hegemonic norms on gender circulate transnationally and enhances knowledge on how international law works in practice.

Özel Yetenekli Öğrencilerde Fiziksel Aktivitenin Çok Yönlü Boyutlarının İncelenmesi

At the stage of supporting students with special abilities in physical activities, those who learn in a more kinesthetic way can demonstrate high-level abilities with the potential to do so through education and/or tactile learning. Students with special abilities exhibit excellent characteristics in one or more of the following areas when examined by the physical activity dimension. Physical area: physiological predisposition to succeed in a particular sport or activity; competence and fitness to perform physical activities, has a strong awareness of his body. Social area: Excellent in leadership, teamwork, initiative and similar characteristics; willingness to share the enthusiasm and passions of others, has self-confidence in showing his talent. Personal space: Enthusiastic and passionate, high self-regulation capacity, self-discipline, strong time management skills, high self-belief, goal-oriented, challenging, excellent inner front group owner, highly motivated to achieve personal best and skillful in mastering skills. Cognitive area: Planning ability is at a high level, understands and has knowledge of physical / sports-related concepts, has the ability to make decisions under pressure. Field of creativity: Gives fluent, original and sensitive responses to difficulties. The skills that students with special abilities exhibit in the field of sports talent are as follows: Having more advanced agility, balance and coordination than their peers. Being fast, which is an innate characteristic and usually distinguishes "exceptional" athletes. The ability to combine his movements fluidly, Decently and accurately. An unusual interest in learning sports rules or activities and mastery in this area. A high level of willingness to master physical skills. Applying the combination of physical skills and cognitive abilities in the right way at the right time in sports/game/activity skills. An interest in teaching a skill or concept to others. Outstanding leadership qualities in the context of sports or activity. Special talented people not only take pride in performing well, they actively engage with others and help peers and teammates to play well. In order to support students with special abilities in physical activities; regular physical education activities, regular aerobic programs, supports with smart boards or similar interactive technological equipment, interactive sports and games, nature trips with active participation, opportunities to teach physical skills to others, adding multi-media resources (such as computers, videos, software programs, presentations, visuals) can be useful in practitioners' programs (teacher presentations and student presentations). Key Words: Special Ability, Special Ability Students, Physical Activity

Weight in sport: changing the focus from ‘weight-sensitive sports’ to risk groups of athletes

ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to examine how different types of sports rules place unique demands upon athletes with regard to their weight and how these demands condition different strategies of weight management. We categorized sports rules into three main categories according to their relationship to weight: 1) sports with weight-prescribing rules; 2) sports rules that advantage lean light bodied athletes; and 3) sports rules that advantage lean robust muscular athletes. This enabled us to provide a more complex view than has been presented by authors in sports sciences, whose emphasis is usually on researching athletes’ body composition, sometimes establishing the ‘desired body’, or addressing the problematic aspects of athletes’ weight-controlling practices within ‘weight-sensitive sports’. We advocate a change of focus from ‘weight-sensitive sports’ to risk groups, since not all athletes in a sport are equally affected by weight issues raised by the sporting test. Thus, this approach offers an athlete-centred approach to weight management in sport, rather than an emphasis on certain types of sports.

‘That’s how we all learn to get along’ – learning in and through ball games in Swedish Physical Education and Health

ABSTRACT Ball games are common content in school physical education and health (PEH), particularly in Sweden. However, criticism has been directed at ball games for focusing too much on performance and competition. In this paper, we explore the learning that occurs in ball games beyond subject-specific knowledge and skills. Data was generated through observations and interviews with four different PEH classes at an upper-secondary school in southern Sweden. Data analysis was based on Uljens’ (2023. Non-affirmative Theory of Education and Bildung (1st ed.). Springer International Publishing.) non-affirmative theory. The findings show that the students learn both subject-specific (e.g. sport techniques, skills, rules and game sense) and generic knowledge and skills (e.g. cooperation, care and providing equal opportunities for everyone) in and through ball games. The findings further draw attention to how more students participate in and learn from ball games when performance and competition is not in focus and when forms of ball games that are less known to the students are used. To conclude, the paper argues that the learning objectives in ball games need to be re-articulated to focus more on the important generic knowledge and skills that students can learn from this PEH content.

Preservation of Traditional Sports of Geudeu-Geudeu Wrestling With Modification of Match Rules in the Pidie Jaya Community of Aceh

The growth of traditional sports begins with daily habits with various activities in the form of movements towards a game which contains elements of the art of sports and social values that exist throughout Indonesia. The aim of the study was to modify the rules of the traditional sport of geudeu-geudeu wrestling. The research method used is research and development (R & D) with the stages of the ADDIE method, namely: analyze, design, develop, implement, evaluate. The research instruments were questionnaires and interviews containing statements related to the modification of the traditional sport rules of geudeu-geudeu wrestling. The research subjects were geudeu-geudeu trainers and 10 youths in Pidie Jaya Regency. Data analysis by looking for the magnitude of the relative frequency or in the form of a percentage. The results of this study indicate that there are four alternative answers chosen by respondents, namely 62.23% strongly agree, 34.24% choose agree, and 3.53% disagree, with the modification of the geudeu-geudeu martial arts regulations. Youth 60.02% strongly agree, 36.55% agree, 3.43% disagree with the modification of the traditional sport rules of geudeu-geudeu wrestling. Geudeu-geudeu and youth coaches 60.12% strongly agreed, 35.39% agreed with the development of the traditional sport regulations of geudeu-geudeu wrestling, and 4.49% disagreed with the modification of the traditional sport rules of geudeu-geudeu wrestling.

L'activité sportive pour réduire le risque cardiovasculaire – Pourquoi s'en priverait-on ?

Sports-related sudden death is an uncommon event, affecting mainly middle-aged men who practice leisure sports, and is related to unknown coronary artery disease. In athletes, cardiac causes are also predominant, with a greater proportion of structural and electrical heart disease. If first-aid resuscitation measures are initiated, survival easily exceeds 50%, and this is an excellent educational illustration of how to improve the prognosis of non-sport-related cardiac arrest. Prevention of a sport-related cardiovascular event remains difficult, and relies on clinical examination, questioning (including family history) and resting ECG in participants >35 years old. The non-contraindication visit is also an opportunity to pass on to the patient the rules of good sports "hygiene" and life-saving gestures in the event of sudden death during sport in one of the partners (and the importance of regularly educating oneself in life-saving gestures...).

Appraisal of Ethics on Key Value of Chinese Athletes Towards a Model for Athletic Training Program

The purpose of this study is to explore the role of ethical evaluation of athletes' key values in practice and to provide guidance for the training model of athletes. Ethics in sport requires four key values: fairness, integrity, responsibility and respect. In this study, a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods were used to conduct a questionnaire survey and analysis of 194 student-athletes. The results show that the four core ethical values of fairness, integrity, responsibility and respect can help coaches and athletes to train and compete more scientifically under their own sports rules and form correct professional ethics. Based on the research results, this paper proposes an ethical evaluation based on the core values of athletes, aiming to promote the development of athletes' skills and level through daily training mode, promote the cultivation of athletes' teamwork ability and leadership ability, and shape athletes' personal character and values.

Корпоративные отношения и спортивные организации: постановка проблемы

The article is dedicated to the problem of the establishment of grounds to acknowledge some sports organizations as corporations and whether it is appropriate to make a link between sports rules and corporate life, corporate relations. To that effect, the author analyzes sports relations and singles out such legal relations as: organizational, servicing and primary that are related to direct participation in a sports event, where the essence of competitions is revealed. Attention is paid to the fact that Russian sports federations are legally defined as public organizations, and sports clubs may have various forms of incorporation and may be not corporations, however, the analysis shows that they are usually established in the form of public associations or economic entities. Attributes and types of corporations are reviewed. A conclusion is made that any expressions that contain reference to corporations should stipulate that a corporation is an organization, where membership of founders of a legal entity is maintained, and a general meeting of members is the supreme governing body.

An Urgent Call for Concussion Incidence Measures in Para Sport for Athletes with Vision Impairment: A Narrative Review.

Concussion in para athletes with vision impairment (VI) is poorly understood. Recently published studies have suggested that athletes with VI may be more likely to sustain sport-related concussions compared to non-disabled athletes and athletes with other impairment types. There is a critical need for objective concussion incidence measures to determine concussion injury rates and risks more accurately. The aim of this review was to examine the limited available evidence of concussion incidence rates across six different para sports for athletes with VI and encourage the future collection of concussion incidence data and the adoption of injury prevention strategies in VI para sport. A literature search was conducted using four unique databases, which formed the basis of this narrative review. Injury prevention strategies such as modifying sport rules, introducing protective equipment, and incorporating additional safety measures into the field of play have been introduced sporadically, but the effectiveness of most strategies remains unknown. More prospective, sport-specific research examining mechanisms of injury and risk factors for concussion injuries in athletes with VI in both training and competition is needed. This research will help inform the development of targeted injury prevention strategies to reduce the likelihood of concussion for athletes with VI.

Challenges and practices in international sport federations to gain and maintain legitimacy

Introduction International sport federations (IFs) are today part of complex ecosystems (Bayle, 2023). As governing bodies, they are regulators and define and sanction sporting and participation rules. IFs are further organizers of international sport events, some of which attract large audiences and investments. In this role, IFs have to satisfy diverging demands of multiple stakeholders (Chappelet, 2021). Additionally, IFs have become important social, economic and political actors. They are employers and as such contribute to the local economy and have a corporate social responsibility. And with sport being increasingly interwoven with money, power, politics and state interests, IFs also influence and are influenced by geopolitics. This has entailed corruption and self-enrichment on one side of the spectrum, and it enabled peace processes and development on the other side. In this complex web of mission, expectations and pressures, how do IFs gain/maintain legitimation? Methods Using literature research and desk research, we first focus on the role and mission of IFs since their creation and illustrate an overview of the changing expectations against which IFs sought/seek legitimacy (historical timeline). Reflecting the conceptual model of Bayle and Clausen (2023, under review) on IFs’ organizational performance and its operationalization, we then map explicit and implicit performance indicators that derive from IFs’ mission and the multiple social, economic and political activities they have embraced over the past decades. Based on this mapping, we discuss IFs’ strategies to meet expectations and pressures that result from these performance indicators. We conclude the presentation with an assessment of the interrelation between expectations towards IFs, strategies developed by IFs, and internal/external performance control mechanisms based on five interviews. Results The social, political, and economic influence of IFs is largely recognized today. Yet, their legitimacy as non-profit governing bodies of sport in the eyes of prominent stakeholders (e.g., IOC, governments, sponsors) is currently reduced to their ability to comply with dominant governance and sustainability frameworks. As a result of this narrow focus, academics and practitioners have developed a good understanding and monitoring mechanisms of IFs’ governance practices. On the other hand, IFs’ performance and legitimacy from a mission and purpose perspective is greatly understudied. Discussion/Conclusion One of the challenges in defining performance indicators for IFs is their broad societal mission. Firstly, the impact of IFs’ activities to contribute to some sort of societal betterment is difficult to measure. And secondly, the priorities of societal issues change (e.g., poverty, health, climate). Any performance measurement system for IFs therefore needs to be dynamic to address both IFs’ mission and evolving external expectations.

Injuries and Violence in Sports: “What Happens on the Court Stays on the Court?”

The article analyzes the problem of violence used during sports and the legal and medical assessment of such actions in society. For this purpose, the legal doctrine in the context of health impairment during sports is examined, the criminal law and other legal acts regulating sports relations are evaluated. Also analyzed is the extremely scarce case law, which assesses the damage caused to athletes during sports and the responsibility for it. Finally, medical criteria are also evaluated - the specifics of the injuries that usually occur during sports and competitions, their features and possible consequences, which, in most cases, lead to the end of an athlete‘s career. 
 One cannot disagree that sport is an extremely useful activity for individuals whose participants often lack legal clarity regarding the legal responsibility for their actions. Meanwhile, health impairment caused by violation of sports rules is undesired result, especially if done on purpose. Taking this into account, the article fraises fundamental questions – is damage in sports tolerable from the state‘s point of view, and which is not only intolerable, but for which it is perhaps necessary to apply the strictest type of legal responsibility – criminal responsibility?

The legal and economic aspects of transfers of football players in the European Union

The paper presents legal and economic aspects of the transfers of football players. Transfer rules in sports are problematic because they may result in unbalanced competition, social and financial fraud, disproportionate restrictions on the freedom of movement of players, excessive transfer fees and discrimination on the basis of nationality. The aim of the paper is to synthesize relevant knowledge and provide an overview of relevant regulatory framework regarding the player transfers in the European Union. The free movement of people and sports professionals is a key component of player transfers, and in order to confirm this, three prominent cases which shaped the transfer system were studied: the Bosman case, the Lehtonen case, the Bernard case and the Royal Antwerp case. Court ruled that sport is to be included to the list of activities covered by the Community Law as it qualified as an economic activity, particularly where it generates a profit or a paid service. Accomplished legal freedoms of players resulted in accompanying economic benefits, hence paper portrays economic aspects of transfers as well and chronologically analyses transfer market.

THE LEGAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE APPLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION COMPETITION LAW TO SPORTS RULES

The subject of the author’s interest in this paper is the consideration of the impact of autonomous sports rules on competition in the relevant sports market. The results of the research are primarily based on the principled opinions or attitudes of the European Court of Justice and the General Court, brought forth in the so-called leading cases, in which the scope of the application of the basic provisions on the competition law of the European Union to sports rules is specified. The basic rules of the Community competition law are found in Articles 101 through 109 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. Although it is not a formal source of the European Union law, the practice of the European Court of Justice and the General Court is extremely important for the interpretation and application of the aforementioned rules. It acts like a kind of signpost on the way to the application of norms governing the protection of competition on the common market. On the basis of the Stabilization and Association Agreement, the Republic of Serbia undertook the legal obligation to implement community law (acquis communautaire) in the domestic legal system. The legal basis for harmonising the competition law in the Republic of Serbia with the law of the European Union is represented by Articles 72 and 73 of the Law on Confirmation of the Stabilization and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their member states

Unpacking Frailty and Gendered Rules of Sport: Women Cricketers’ Experiences of Practice and Play in Rajasthan, India

Sport has historically furthered the myth of female frailty by making it the basis for women’s exclusion from early participation, and hitherto, for inclusion on restricted conditions. The article focuses on the gendered rules of play in cricket which manifest materially by altering an object, the space and temporality of play translating into the use of a smaller ball within a shorter boundary and lesser hours of playtime for women in comparison to men. While the historical and existing justifications for each of the differences in rules revolve around varied meanings of what ‘being frail’ entails for women, the supposed easing of conditions is also expected to encourage and enable women to emulate men’s style of play, and hence, make their game ‘exciting’. Drawing from fieldwork and interviews of women cricketers who represent the state of Rajasthan (India) in the Board of Control for Cricket in India domestic tournaments, the article unpacks the on-ground manifestation of the three gendered rules to argue that the altered nature of play makes the women’s version more challenging and hence, distinct and separate from the men’s version and its valuations. Foregrounding women’s layered experiences, the article shows the way women play sport cannot be captured within the imposed binary logic of frail and non-frail.

Influence of Two Different Competition Models on Physical Performance in Under-13 Basketball Players: Analysis Considering Maturity Timing

The rules of team sport have been influenced by professional competitions without considering all the factors that differentiate children and adolescents from adults. The aim of this study was to analyse the performance of kinematic variables in two different types of tournaments and the influence of somatic maturation on performance in young basketball players. Thirty-seven under-13 male basketball players (age = 12.91 ± 0.57 years) were selected by four southeast Spanish teams to participate in two different tournaments. On the first day, the tournament was played according to the rules of the Spanish Basketball Federation (FEB) for under-14 players, and on the second day, the tournament was played according to modified rules (Modified Tournament). In this tournament, the height of the basket was lowered to 2.90 m; the three-point line was a rectangle that was 4 m from the basket.The following kinematic variables were analysed: Acceleration (n), Deceleration (n), Maximum Acceleration Speed (km/h), Maximum Deceleration Speed (km/h), Acceleration Meters Covered (m), Deceleration Meters Covered (m), Number of Sprints (n), Sprint Meters Covered (m), Maximum Sprint Speed, and Player Load (n). The results showed no significant differences in player performance between the tournaments. However, significant differences in performance (p < 0.05) were found in players at different stages of maturation. Early maturity players showed the best performance in the kinematic variables in both tournaments; because of this, there should be a modification of the rules and organisation of competitions by bio-banding. It can be concluded that there were no significant differences in the kinematic variables between the two tournaments. However, when comparing maturation timing, there tends to be a group effect.

Effectiveness of Protective Measures and Rules in Reducing the Incidence of Injuries in Combat Sports: A Scoping Review.

In recent years, much effort has been made to reduce the injury rate in combat sports. However, the question remains to what extent these measures are effective. Analysis of studies could provide evidence of the effectiveness of measures aimed at reducing the incidence of injuries. This scoping review aims (1) to map research articles dealing with the effectiveness of proper use of protective measures in reducing the incidence of injuries in combat sports; (2) to investigate to what extent the proper use of protective measures and compliance with sports rules help to reduce the incidence of injuries in combat sports; and (3) to identify gaps in the existing literature and suggest future research on this topic. The literature search was conducted on articles published between 2010 and 2023. The main inclusion criteria were studies investigating the effect of sports rules and protective equipment used during training or competition in combat sports on reducing the incidence of injuries. After meeting the criteria, only seven articles from boxing, karate, and taekwondo were included in this study. Results showed that mandatory head guards, along with modern thicker gloves, significantly reduced the rate of knockouts (KOs) and head injuries in boxing despite an increase in the number of head blows. However, the number of facial cuts increased significantly due to the removal of head guards as a piece of mandatory equipment. The use of mouth guards has significantly reduced the number of oral injuries. Changes in rules, such as shortening the duration of bouts, along with the introduction of greater competencies of referees in the supervision of bouts (the standing count, outclassed rule, and medical stops) have helped to reduce the rate of injuries in boxing. The application of a computerised scoring system also contributed to the rate of injuries reduction. The increase in the number of weight divisions had the same effect on U21 karate athletes. However, a higher incentive to attack the head area in taekwondo did not increase the incidence of injuries in youth athletes. It can be concluded that the proper use of protective measures (head and mouth guards) in combination with the rules established for health protection (higher competencies of referees and more weight divisions in competitions) effectively reduces the occurrence of injuries in combat sports. In all Olympic combat sports, the injury incidence should be regularly assessed using the Injury Incidence Rate (IIR) per 1000 min exposures (MEs). Nonetheless, further studies are needed to monitor how established rules (e.g., prohibited behaviour) affect the IIRs.

Human Rights in Sports Arbitration: What Should the Court of Arbitration for Sport do for Protecting Human Rights in Sports?

Sports governing bodies establish their sporting rules and regulations. Nevertheless, they confront a complex question concerning whether a female athlete who inherently possesses an advantageous quantity of testosterone may participate in female athletic competitions. In Caster Semenya and Athletics South Africa (ASA) v. IAAF, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) held that she could not participate in female sports events because “the elevated testosterone levels that such athletes possess can create an insuperable advantage over other female athletes who do not have a 46 XY DSD condition”. Consequently, the CAS ruled that she would no longer be eligible to compete in professional female competitions. In this scenario, the primary focus of this article is to examine how the CAS should address human rights-related issues, even though it is not a human rights court like the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) but rather an arbitral tribunal. To achieve this purpose, this article will address the following questions: (1) How can athletes claim a violation of their human rights before the CAS?; and (2) What steps should the CAS take to safeguard human rights in sports? Through this research, it may serve to identify the CAS’s role in human rights protection in sports.

Revival of the Canonic Yakut Traditional Competitions at the Ysyakh Holiday

At present, the modern competitive program of the Yakut holiday Ysyakh, which consists of sports events and is carried out according to modern sports rules, can no longer be considered a cultural code of the ethnic group in the future, since the study of archival documents describing the Yakut traditional games, as well as old photographs depicting the moments of the Yakut traditional competitive games revealed that the imposition of a sports status leads to significant and permanent changes in the rules of the competition, which ultimately leads to a radical change in the sport from the original version of the traditional game. Also, subject to the development of any ethnic type of competition as a sport in the international arena, there is a gradual loss of the ethnic identity of this sport. Therefore, we recommend that the competitive part of the ethnic ritual holiday of Ysyakh, consisting of the Yakut traditional types of competitions, be held according to the reconstructed old rules and canons; thereby, on the one hand, we contribute to the preservation of the authenticity of traditional competitive games, and on the other hand, we provide a connection between authentic traditional games and the types of competitions that have received sports status.

New sports rules combined with sertraline on Posttraumatic Stress of volleyball players

BackgroundIn competitive sports, trauma and stress reactions are common problems faced by athletes. In order to explore methods to alleviate post-traumatic stress, research focuses on the effectiveness of combining new sports rules with medication treatment.Subjects and MethodsThe study selected 66 volleyball athletes with post-traumatic stress as the research subjects and divided them into an experimental group and a control group. The athletes in the research group received training on new sports rules and personalized sertraline therapy. The control group of athletes continued to receive traditional sports rules training and received placebo treatment at the same dose and time. During the research process, a standardized post-traumatic stress scale was used to evaluate the two groups. Collected data were processed and analyzed by the statistical method SPSS22.0.ResultsAfter a period of experimentation, the volleyball players in the research group showed a decrease in their PTSD scores from the initial score of 80 to 55 after being treated with the new sports rules combined with sertraline. The players in the control group, after receiving traditional sports rules and placebo treatment, experienced a decrease in their PTSD scores from an initial score of 90 to 75.ConclusionsThe research results indicate that the combination of new sports rules and personalized drug therapy has a significant positive impact on post-traumatic stress athletes. New rules and drug therapy can effectively alleviate athletes’ post-traumatic stress response.

Why the rules do not prohibit cheating in sports

ABSTRACT The idea that cheaters cannot (really) win in sports persists among philosophers, mainly due to the lingering influence of Bernard Suits’ logical incompatibility thesis. In this article I explain why the thesis does not apply to sports. I argue that the question whether cheating can be prohibited in sports is empirical rather than analytic, as is the case for games subject to the thesis. Thus, sports rules do not make cheating impossible and since game officials cannot always detect cheating and punish cheaters, cheating is a part of sports and cheaters sometimes win. Even if advances in technology made it impossible for cheaters to evade detection, since in-game officials will never know whether their attempts to provide restorative justice to those victimized by acts of cheating are successful, and since cheaters exploit this fact, it follows that not only is cheating a part of sports, but it always will be.