Sport Stereotypes Research Articles

Gender Stereotypes in Sports and Advertising: Evidence from Eye-tracking

Gender Stereotypes in Sports and Advertising: Evidence from Eye-tracking

Questioning Sports Journalists: Stereotypes, Work Routines, and Color-Blind Racism in Sports Press Conferences

Sports scholars have long studied how stereotypes pervade sports. However, little if any of this research has examined the origins of these stereotypes and how they influence journalistic practice. This study explores sports journalists’ work routines, their perception of stereotypes in sports, and whether there is a connection between the two. The authors conduct a critical discourse analysis of in-depth interviews with 13 sports journalists from across the U.S. Results show that journalists are (sometimes) aware of stereotypes, downplay their role in perpetuating them, and engage in color-blind rhetoric about the prevalence of stereotypes in sports media coverage of college sports. Additionally, the sports journalists interviewed as part of this study outlined the various constraints on their jobs that might impact their ability to establish rapport with athletes, which might result in an increased likelihood of the perpetuation of stereotypes. The findings underscore the need for more scholarly inquiry about sports press conferences and the connection between journalistic practice and ideology, particularly as it relates to race.

All the Right Questions: Exploring Racial Stereotypes in Sports Press Conferences

Sports press conferences are an area in need of more study and critique, especially regarding how sports journalists ask questions to athletes. This study analyzes the press conferences (N = 44) for four major college football teams during the 2021–2022 season, using textual analysis to explore whether sports journalists’ questions differ based on the race of the athlete and whether those questions reflect racial stereotypes. This study relies on theories of race and representation, including racial formation theory and color-blind racism, and builds upon research on stereotypes in sports. The author found that questions asked to White and Black athletes often reflected stereotypical binaries that emphasized White athletes’ intelligence, leadership, and humanity while highlighting Black athletes’ athleticism, strength, and physical ability.

Following Naomi Osaka and Rui Hachimura on Social Media: Silent Activism and Sport Commodification of Multiracial Japanese Athletes

This article explores the role of social media in athlete activism and sport commodification through the case studies of two elite multiracial athletes who represent Japan, professional tennis player Naomi Osaka and professional basketball player Rui Hachimura. Osaka’s mother is Japanese and her father is Haitian-American, whereas Hachimura’s mother is Japanese and his father is Beninese. Employing critical discourse analysis of Twitter and Instagram, we ask: How do they use social media to amplify their voices and advocacy for race and ethnicity? How do their athlete activism and multiracial identity appeal to fans and sponsors? We argue that social media lend them various ways for resistance through defying monoracial labeling and racialized sport stereotypes, manifesting their multiracial identity, speaking up against social justice issues, and affiliating with certain sponsors. We demonstrate how their “silent activism” is subtle, situated in everyday life, and not antithetical to the commodification of their (athlete-activist) image.

A Study of Challenges that Transgender Athletes Face in Sports

Sports have always been segregated by a traditional gender and sex binary and reinforced where all competitive sports are divided into male and female categories. While a few openly transgender athletes have garnered notoriety and challenged gender identity stereotypes in sports, they face discrimination, judgements, online shaming, and transphobia. The main objective of this research is to provide a platform for transgender athletes to discuss their involvement in sports and share their experiences in the sector, as well as for administrators to address their views on transgender athletes participation in sports. Data was collected using a qualitative approach utilising open-ended interviews with two trans athletes and two sports administrators.

Influence of Gender Stereotype on Participation in Physical Education Class of High School Students

Some researchers have discovered that gender stereotypes in physical education courses have a significant impact on the course participation rates of high school students; however, the formation mechanisms and influencing factors that are behind them still lack a unified explanation. Gender stereotypes in physical education courses have become one of the most important topics of research in recent years. As a result, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact that gender stereotypes have on the level of participation that high school students have in physical education classes. For this purpose, this paper undertakes a case study and gathers information from the curriculum, family, society, and schools that may have an impact on how many boys and girls choose to participate in physical education in high school, respectively. According to the findings of the study, male and female high school students physical education (PE) self-perceptions as well as their engagement in PE were influenced by gender stereotypes in PE. The number of females who participated in physical education was often far smaller than the number of males who did so, and many people had the impression that boys dominated the field. In light of this, eradicating gender stereotypes in sports will make it possible to make better use of the athletic interests and abilities of both young men and young women.

Faktorska struktura interesovanja adolescenata prema sportovima

The aim of this empirical study was to examine the latent structures of adolescents' interest in sports. The pertinent sample included (N = 144) male high school seniors from Valjevo, of average age 18.05 ± 1.82. The adapted version of the PS2 Questionnaire about Interests in Sports (Prot and Bosnar, 1999) was applied in this transversal research. The maximum mean value of the scores on the PS-2 questionnaire was noted in the preference for auto and motorcycle racing (M = 3.72), and the minimum one in gymnastics (M =1.10). Five main components were extracted by analyzing the main components (PCA) based on the Guttman-Kaiser criterion, with 6.91% of the total variance explained. The extracted five-factor structure of the latent dimensions was interpreted as: outdoor sports, combat sports and martial arts, fundamental and artistic sports, ball and racket sports, and precision sports. The linear correlations of the isolated common factors are statistically significant (p ≤ 0,05), move in positive direction and are of low or moderate intensity, and that shows that the isolated latent variables are not independent, but that there is a relevant overlap between them. The preference of sports interests in the five-factor structure of adolescents is oriented towards "male" and partly towards "neutral" sports which points to the relevance of gender stereotypes in sports. This study also deals with the practical implications of the relevance of the isolated five-factor structure of sports interest in adolescents. This transversal research contributes to the existing literature and empirical data on this rarely examined phenomenon in Serbian sports population.

ПОДОЛАННЯ ГЕНДЕРНИХ СТЕРЕОТИПІВ НА УРОКАХ ФІЗИЧНОЇ КУЛЬТУРИ ЗАСОБАМИ СПОРТИВНИХ ІГОР

The article analyzes the manifestations of gender stereotypes in sports and notes that despite some positive changes in pedagogy, in particular, when it comes to physical education, there is still a unilateral approach in sex-role education of children. Even in new pedagogical publications, the difference between sexes is often reduced only to the physiological differences. It is stated that the introduction of sports games, in particular basketball, at high school allows to overcome a number of gender stereotypes. The model experiment has determined the appropriate age of starting playing basketball, on the basis of which you can see that at high school, both boys and girls show equally high achievements in this sport. This pattern allows you to train the basic skills of the game and directly two-way play in mixed teams. As a result, students develop an understanding that success, effectiveness and victory depend on perseverance, diligence, work on themselves and their own skills, not on gender. It is emphasized that the purpose of studying sport games at high school, in particular basketball, is not training professional athletes, but education of a number of useful life skills: the ability to work in a team, ingenuity, agility, initiative, leadership qualities and, importantly, overcome gender stereotypes about the benefits of a certain sex in sports. Thus, generalization of the results of the model experiment and many years of practical experience make it possible to argue that basketball is an effective way to overcome gender stereotypes in physical education lessons at high school. Key words: gender stereotypes, sports games, basketball, model experiment, sensitive periods of development, mixed teams.

Sports media professionals reflect on racial stereotypes and ethnic diversity in the organization

PurposeThe aim of this article is to examine how professionals within Dutch sports media give meaning to racial/ethnic diversity in the organization and reflect on the use of racial stereotypes in sports reporting.Design/methodology/approachTen in-depth interviews with Dutch sports media professionals have been conducted to obtain the data. Respondents had a variety of responsibilities within different media organizations in the Netherlands. The authors used thematic analysis supplemented with insights from critical discourse analysis to examine how sports media professionals give meaning to racial/ethnic diversity and the use of racial/ethnic stereotypes.FindingsThe following main themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews: (1) routines within the production process, (2) reflections on lack of diversity on the work floor and (3) racial/ethnic stereotyping not seen as an issue. Generally, journalists showed paradoxical views on the issue of racial/ethnic diversity within sport media production dismissing it as a non-issue on the one hand while also acknowledging there is a lack of racial diversity within sport media organizations. Results will be placed and discussed in a wider societal and theoretical perspective.Originality/valueBy focussing on the under-researched social group of sport media professionals in relation to meanings given to race and ethnicity in the production process, this research provides new insights into the role of sports media organizations in (re)producing discourses surrounding race/ethnicity in multi-ethnic society and the operation of whiteness in sports media.

Persistence of Gender Stereotypes in Sports

Equality among women and men is the fundamental principle of the European Union. European Commission has declared to eliminate and resolve the gender inequalities in decision-making within the Women’s Charter as well as the strategy for women and men equality. Although there is a continuous growth in women’s participation in sports, women are still underrepresented in the decision-making bodies of the sports institutions at local, national, European and global level. However, gender inequality remains common in our society, even though the way how individuals experience gender discrimination differs. The reason is the fact that inequality is the consequence of various factors influence, not the gender itself only. When strengthening gender equality in sports and decision-making, eliminating gender inequalities is the most important. Following the contemporary

Media Representations of Multiracial Athletes

There is a substantial body of research examining racialized narratives about Black and White athletes. However, there is an absence of literature that has specifically explored multiracial identities in the sport context. The purpose of the current study was to examine narratives constructed in the media when discussing the race(s) of multiracial athletes. Investigators conducted a qualitative media analysis using 68 online and print news articles that clearly identified athletes as multiracial. Findings indicated that sports journalists are susceptible to perpetuating certain racialized sport stereotypes when covering multiracial athletes. Media members should make an effort to be aware of an athlete’s racial identity and be mindful of not relying on racial stereotypes when writing about multiracial athletes.

Gender stereotypes, self, and sport dropout: a one-year prospective study in adolescents

Introduction . Gender stereotypes were previously shown to be associated with sport dropout, but this literature remains scare and the results observed are limited by the design used, the focus on explicit stereotypes, the absence of consideration of individuals' gender-identity, and of the gendered-nature of sports. Objective. This one-season prospective study examined gender stereotypes (explicit and implicit) and self-perceptions (gender- as well as sport-related), in relationship to dropout intentions and behavior among adolescent athletes practicing feminine, neutral or masculine sports. Method. Explicit gender sport stereotypes, self-perceptions of sport value and competence, and gender centrality were assessed by questionnaire. Gender-sport and self-gender automatic associations were evaluated with two Brief-Implicit Association Tests (B-IAT; Sriram, N., & Greenwald, A.G. (2009). The Brief Implicit Association Test. Experimental Psychology, 56 , 283–294. DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.283). Results and conclusion. Pro-masculine sport stereotypes and sport self-perceptions were higher in boys and in adolescents practicing masculine sports. Also, sport self-perceptions were positively predicted by sport stereotypes in favor of one's sex in-group, whatever the centrality of gender in adolescents' identity. Last, athletes with stronger intentions displayed higher sport self-perceptions of value and competence, and were more likely to actually pursue their activity one year later.

Sport = Male… But Not All Sports: Investigating the Gender Stereotypes of Sport Activities at the Explicit and Implicit Levels

The main objectives of the present studies were to update the explicit gender stereotypes linked to sport activities and examine whether they are associated with gender, age, personal practice, and general feminization rates of participation (Study 1, N = 690), as well as to investigate the potential effects of implicit gender sport stereotypes on the categorization of gendered names (Study 2, N = 53) and on perceptions of feminine, neutral, and masculine silhouettes (Study 3, N = 42). Study 1 indicated that explicit gender stereotypes are still attached to sport activities, with little variations according to personal characteristics but with a strong association with actual feminization rates. In Study 2, which focused on implicit stereotypes, we observed a slower identification of male names when participants were primed with feminine sport activities. In Study 3, neutral silhouettes were more frequently categorized as women following a feminine sport, but as men following a masculine sport. Our research suggests that sport activities are still gendered, both at the explicit and implicit levels, which may lead individuals to adjust their own participation even outside their consciousness.

Dealing with negative stereotypes in sports: the role of cognitive anxiety when multiple identities are activated in sensorimotor tasks.

Based on research on stereotype threat and multiple identities, this work explores the beneficial effects of activating a positive social identity when a negative identity is salient on women's performance in sports. Further, in line with research on the effects of anxiety in sports, we investigate whether the activation of a positive social identity buffers performance from cognitive anxiety associated with a negative stereotype. Two experiments tested these predictions in field settings. Experiment 1 (N = 83) shows that the simultaneous activation of a positive (i.e., member of a soccer team) and a negative social identity (i.e., woman) led to better performance than the activation of only a negative social identity for female soccer players. Experiment 2 (N = 46) demonstrates that identity condition moderated the effect of cognitive anxiety on performance for female basketball players. Results are discussed concerning multiple identities' potential for dealing with stressful situations.

Social Antecedents and Consequences of Gender-Sport Stereotypes During Adolescence

Eccles et al.’s Expectancy-Value Model posits that the stereotypes endorsed by parents may influence their children’s participation in leisure-time activities. This influence is presumed to occur through the mediating role of children’s perceived competence and value given to the activity, predicting in turn drop out. Previous research is scarce relative to (a) the parent–child transmission of gender stereotypes and (b) the relationships among stereotypes, self-perceptions, and decision to drop out from an activity. We present three studies that examined gender stereotypes in the sport context to test these underexplored aspects of the model. Study 1 revealed significant links among perceived gender stereotypes in the social environment (i.e., general and parental beliefs), personal endorsement of stereotypes, and dropout behavior among 347 adolescents. Study 2 revealed no bound between stereotypes assessed among parents and 104 adolescent athletes. It further indicated that self-perceptions may mediate the relationship between 155 adolescents’ gender stereotypes and intentions to drop out from sport. Study 3 involved 23 parent–adolescent dyads and revealed that parents’ and adolescents’ endorsement of gender stereotypes were not significantly related when assessed with explicit measures, but significantly correlated when assessed through an implicit test. Taken as a whole, the results of this set of studies suggest that gender sport stereotypes are conveyed from social environment to adolescents and that they can lead to drop out. The implications for parents and practitioners are discussed.

Social value and asymmetry of gender and sex categories in physical education

IntroductionSports are traditionally considered to be masculine activities, but recent studies have shown that femininity and women may be more highly valued in this domain than previously thought. ObjectiveThis study sought to elucidate the apparent ambivalence about women in sports and specifically examined the social value of gender and sex in physical education classes. MethodFrench physical education teachers from primary and middle schools and students in the fifth and ninth grades participated in two studies using the judge's paradigm and the self-presentation paradigm, respectively. ResultsThe first study indicated that both masculinity and femininity were valued by teachers but were differently anchored in the components of social value. While masculinity was associated with the likelihood of success (social utility), femininity was associated with likeableness (social desirability). The stereotype of “male superiority in sport” also modulated social utility judgments. The second study revealed that ninth graders presented themselves as highly feminine and masculine when they strove to gain approval. Fifth graders only used femininity as a self-presentation strategy, suggesting that at this age children do not yet attempt to conform to teachers’ expectations. ConclusionThese studies suggest that future research on stereotypes in sports would benefit from theoretical approaches that take ambivalence in personal judgments into account, as this would avoid misinterpreting null or counter-stereotypical effects as apparently positive.

Exploring the Meaning African American PETE Teacher Candidates Ascribe to Their Aquatic Experiences

Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs typically require their graduates to learn to swim proficiently. However, the research base is underdeveloped regarding the aquatic experiences of African Americans in PETE programs. The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning African American PETE teacher candidates ascribe to their aquatic experiences. Participants were six African American teacher candidates. The research design was explanatory multiple-case study. The primary data sources were interviews and weekly journal reflections. Data from these sources were analyzed using the constant comparative method. The teacher candidates ascribed various meanings to their experiences, linking them to successes or traumatic events including criticism and race-based stereotypical views. Nevertheless, overcoming aqua-phobia and striving for success in the aquatic courses were common to the participants' journeys. Recommendations include a series of progressive aquatic courses to help students overcome aqua phobia, when necessary; increase swimming proficiency; and counter race-based sport stereotypes about African Americans.Keywords: African American, aquatics, physical education, experiences, historically Black colleges and universitiesIntroductionPhysical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs are charged with preparing teachers who can implement socially just pedagogies (Hodge & Faison-Hodge, 20 1 0). This includes preparing teacher candidates to design and implement various curriculum models. Arguably, this charge should include aquatic content and pedagogy, as well as preparing teacher candidates to work with students in diverse communities (Sato et al., 2010).A wealth of empirical studies confirms that there are many benefits to learning how to swim proficiently. Berukoff and Hill (2010) stated that learning how to swim increases water safety; enhances physiological fitness; promotes social, emotional, and psychological wellness; provides a sense of accomplishment and gratification; and increases opportunities for social interaction. Furthermore they asserted that, Having a minimum level of swimming competency can increase job opportunities, since aquatic professionals are always needed as lifeguards and swim instructors (p. 410). Nevertheless, there is a lack of aquatic facilities and programs in urban schools and communities, which results in lost recreational and educational opportunities for economically disadvantaged Black youth. Consequently, some 60% of Black youths between the ages 6 and 16 years old do not know how to swim (Thomas-Lynn, 2008). This percentage is nearly twice as high as that of White youths in the same age range. Additionally, accidental drowning rates between Black and White youths differ by a three to one ratio (Centers of Disease Control & Prevention, 2008). There is a great need for more physical education teachers to be prepared and willing to teach aquatics in urban communities.There were no PETE programs designed for African American physical education teachers until 1924 when two historically Black institutions, Howard University and Hampton Institute (now University), established four-year degree PETE programs (Hodge & Wiggins, 2010). Of the more than one hundred historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in America today (Wilson, 2007), few offer an aquatics concentration for PETE majors. However, HBCUs typically require the general student body to take an aquatic course on basic water safety and swimming techniques, because of the lack of exposure to swimming in many students' early years.HBCUs are defined, under the Higher Education Act of 1965 as institutions of higher education established before 1964 whose principal mission was then, and remains today, the education of Black citizens (Wilson, 2007). In the fall of 2006, there were 310,446 students enrolled at HBCUs across 21 states, the District of Columbia, and the U. …

Sport stereotypes in the 21st century “brought to you by” Media Corporations

Sport stereotypes in the 21st century “brought to you by” Media Corporations

Perceptions of athletic superiority: a view from the other side

In physical education classes all learning that occurs does not fall under the carefully planned and structured lessons presented by teachers (Kirk, 1992). Physical education and athletics are inextricably related by teachers who often serve as coaches of athletic teams. These teacher/coaches often unconsciously transmit values from the athletic realm to physical education classes. This unplanned and unrecognized transmission of values and beliefs is known as the ‘hidden curriculum’ (Fernandez‐Balboa, 1993, p. 233). Often entrenched in this hidden curriculum are race‐based stereotypes that provide students with distorted perceptions of physical abilities based on race. This qualitative study seeks to examine this phenomenon from the European American perspective. European American former and present athletes were interviewed regarding their sports experiences and views. Results indicate that European American athletes in this study appeared to be steered away from developing lofty athletic aspirations. This appears to be a consequence of strong race–sport stereotypes.

Sport Stereotypes and Gender

Two samples were used to assess the sex linkage of a wide range of sports. One sample rated each of 68 sports (Matteo, 1984) on perceived acceptability and likelihood of participation for both females and males. The other judged the same 68 sports for masculinity-femininity and perceived complexity. Additionally, all 68 sports were compared to Metheny's (1965) physical activities criteria for perceived appropriateness for female participation. Results indicated that masculinity-femininity judgments were similar to those obtained by Matteo (1984) and that correlations of sex linkage of sport with acceptability and likelihood of participation were high, especially for judgments about female participants. Agreement between sex-type categories for sports and Metheny's (1965) criteria was most consistent for sports receiving either the most extreme masculine or most extreme feminine ratings. It appears that perceptions of the masculinity or femininity of sports are influenced by the gender of who actually participates in those sports as well as the physical activities involved in the sports. Finally, the correlation between mean masculinity-femininity and simplicity-complexity ratings was small and not significant. Indeed, those groups of sports categorized as masculine and feminine were rated as equally complex, and both groups were judged as significantly more complex than the sports classified as neutral. This finding negates Deaux's (1984) contention that feminine tasks are inevitably judged to be simpler than masculine tasks.