Spontaneous Trait Inferences Research Articles

When the punk wishes you a great day, he still appears friendly: Stereotypes do not reliably guide spontaneous trait inferences from behavior

One of the most robust effects in person perception research is the spontaneous trait inference (STI) effect, defined as the spontaneous tendency to draw dispositional inferences from actors' behaviors. Yet, research has suggested that stereotypes affect STIs by inhibiting stereotype incongruent or facilitating stereotype congruent STIs. These findings are remarkable considering (a) the robustness of STI effects and (b) the typical design of behavioral statements in this research as unambiguously indicative of traits. We present a series of four high-powered, preregistered experiments (N = 1004) that originally aimed at replicating stereotype effects on STIs as basis for investigating their underlying psychological mechanisms. We employed a probe recognition paradigm that has been used in prior research, pairing trait-implying behavioral statements with category labels implying either trait-congruent or -incongruent stereotypes. We additionally implemented several methodological improvements like a larger and extensively pretested stimulus set.While we observed highly robust STI effects in all experiments, these were largely unaffected by actor stereotypes: Only one of the four experiments showed the hypothesized STI-stereotype interaction with a small effect size. We discuss how these findings add to the rather small number of existing publications on STIs and stereotypes and how the observed robustness of behavior-based impressions parallels prior research on intentional impression formation. We aim to instigate debate, further theorizing, and research that enhances our understanding of the boundary conditions of stereotype effects on spontaneous trait inferences in impression formation from unambiguous behaviors.

The Spontaneous Counterfactual Inference Task: Misremembering What Might Have Been.

Counterfactuals, thoughts about "what might have been," play an important role in causal judgment, emotion, and motivation, and spontaneously arise during daily life. However, current methods to measure spontaneous counterfactual thinking are cumbersome and subjective. The current research adapts a paradigm from the Spontaneous Trait Inference literature to develop the Spontaneous Counterfactual Inference measure (SCFI), which uses false recognition of counterfactual statements as a measure of spontaneous counterfactual thought. Studies 1a and 1b demonstrate that the SCFI is sensitive to precursors of counterfactual thinking: norm violation and counterfactual closeness. Study 2 demonstrates that the SCFI converges with the generation of counterfactual statements in an open-ended writing task. The SCFI also predicts two important consequences of counterfactual thought, blame (Study 3), and intention endorsement (Study 4). The SCFI thus offers a new tool for researchers interested in counterfactual thinking.

My general manager is warmer than department manager: Stereotypes about senior and junior high-power individuals and their influences on spontaneous trait inference.

Previous research suggests that high-power (HP) individuals are stereotyped as positive competence but negative warmth. By subdividing HP individuals into junior and senior HP individuals, the current research conducted five studies to examine the warmth perception differences toward senior and junior HP individuals in Confucian culture and the downstream effects on spontaneous trait inference (STI). By using different paradigms, Study 1 and 2 found that participants tended to perceive junior HP individuals as negative on the warmth dimension and perceive senior HP individuals as positive on the warmth dimension. The following Study 3 and 4 further found that the warmth perception difference toward senior and junior HP individuals had an influence on STI. Specifically, participants were inclined to make STI from behaviors implying negative warmth traits when behavioral actors were junior HP individuals while they were inclined to make STI from behaviors implying positive warmth traits when behavioral actors were senior HP individuals. Additionally, Study 4 found that perceived social responsibility about HP individuals accounted for the power stereotype effects in STI, the more social responsibility participants perceived about senior HP individuals, the stronger power stereotype effects they showed in STI. The final Study 5 revealed that the different power stereotype effects in STI induced by senior and junior HP actors were observed only in Confucian culture, but not in non-Confucian culture. The present research firstly demonstrated that the warmth perceptions about senior and junior produced different influences on STI in Confucian culture, and also enriched the understanding about the culture-specificity of the stereotype content model.

Spontaneous Trait Inferences From Behavior: A Systematic Meta-Analysis.

Research suggests that people spontaneously infer traits from behavioral information, thus forming impressions of actors' personalities. Such spontaneous trait inferences (STI) have been examined in a wide range of studies in the last four decades. Here, we provide the first systematic meta-analysis of this vast literature. We included data from k = 86 publications, with overall N = 13,630 participants. The average STI effect was moderate to large (dz = 0.59) and showed substantial heterogeneity. The type of experimental paradigm significantly moderated the STI effect size, with larger effects in long-term memory-based paradigms compared with working memory-based paradigms. Generally, STI effects were robust to various methodological variations and also to potential concerns of publication bias. Contrary to expectations, cultural background (independent vs. interdependent) did not emerge as a significant moderator of STI effects. We discuss these findings with respect to their theoretical relevance and derive implications for future research and theorizing.

Inferring Goals and Traits From Behaviors: The Role of Culture, Self-Construal, and Thinking Style

People make spontaneous inferences from others' behaviors, such as spontaneous trait inferences (STIs) and spontaneous situation inferences (SSIs). People's behaviors, however, are shaped by their goals as well, which are determined by their internal characteristics (e.g., traits) and by contextual factors (e.g., social roles). In three studies, we examined whether self-construal, culture, and holistic thinking were associated with spontaneous goal inferences (SGIs) and STIs. We found that the more people defined themselves interdependently and viewed the causality of events holistically, the more they made SGIs (Study 1). Moreover, Asian American participants (interdependent) made SGIs but no STIs from people's behaviors, whereas European American participants (independent) made both (Study 2). Finally, participants primed with interdependence made SGIs but no STIs, whereas those primed with independence made both (Study 3). This research is the first to examine SGIs in relation to self-construal, culture, and holistic thinking.

Easy to Make, Hard to Revise: Updating Spontaneous Trait Inferences in the Presence of Trait-Inconsistent Information

Previous research has shown that perceivers spontaneously form trait inferences from others' behaviors received at a single point in time. The present work examined the persistence of spontaneous trait inferences (STIs) in the presence of trait-inconsistent information about others. We hypothesized that STIs should be resistant to change over time and in the presence of new trait-inconsistent information due to perceivers forming and storing multiple STIs independently in memory. Consistently, Experiments 1a and 1b showed that initial STIs were not affected by new trait-inconsistent information. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that STIs were persistent over 48 hours. Two experiments also tested memory reconsolidation as a possible mechanism of updating first impressions. While STIs were not substantially affected, spontaneous goal inferences (SGIs) were elevated among those with a better explicit memory of behaviors after learning trait-inconsistent information following a memory reactivation procedure. Implications of these findings on impression formation and updating processes are discussed.

The neural correlates of Chinese children's spontaneous trait inferences: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence.

The results of multiple behavioral investigations indicate that children can develop spontaneous trait inferences (STIs) starting from when they are 8-9 years of age. However, little is known about the neural correlates of STIs when they first develop. In the present study, we measured event-related potentials (ERPs) and event-related spectral perturbation (ERSP) using an N400 paradigm. Seventeen 9-year-old Chinese children were first instructed to remember facial photos and paired trait-implying behaviors. Subsequently, they performed a lexical decision task in which faces were used to prime the inferred traits or their antonyms. Compared to the inferred traits, the antonyms exhibited a stronger amplitude on both N400 (370-500 ms) and negative slow wave (NSW; 550-800 ms). However, only N400 showed a right hemispheric dominance of STIs. In addition, ERSP results revealed stronger lower alpha band (7-10 Hz) activity for antonyms than inferred traits over the right parieto-occipital area from 420 ms to 800 ms. These findings, coupled with the electroencephalography (EEG) source localization (standardized low-resolution electromagnetic tomography [sLORETA]), provide evidence for a "monitoring-control" two-stage neural network.

Emotional expressions affect perceptions of younger and older adults' everyday competence.

Facial expressions of emotion allow us to predict other people's intentions and behaviors. However, we often overextend these predictions to also make inferences about other people's underlying tendencies and dispositions. People with happy expressions are perceived to have stable positive traits whereas people with sad expressions are perceived to have stable negative traits. In these studies, we tested whether this extends to inferences about younger and older adults' abilities to complete fundamental activities of independent living, such as independently getting dressed, preparing food, and remembering directions. Our results showed that both younger and older adult targets were perceived to have greater everyday competence in completing activities of daily living (ADLs), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), and memory tasks when they displayed happy or neutral expressions rather than sad expressions. This pattern did not vary based upon either the target's gender or the participant's age. However, for the ADL and IADL ratings, the overgeneralization of emotions to ratings of everyday competence was greater for the older adult targets than for the younger adult targets. Drawing from the ecological approach to social perception, these results suggests that spontaneous trait inferences are most likely to occur when the age-trait association is strong. Given that perceptions of competence are also associated with behavioral ramifications, such as being subjected to patronizing behavior, having lower employment opportunities, and being seen as low in social status, our results also suggest that older adults whose facial expressions appear sad may be especially prone to these adverse outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Spontaneous goal versus spontaneous trait inferences: How ideology shapes attributions and explanations

AbstractPast research documented liberals’ greater tendency than conservatives to take situational determinants of others’ actions into account when forming causal attributions, and conservatives’ greater tendency to seek consistency. We hypothesize that liberals (vs. conservatives) should be more likely to make spontaneous goal inferences (SGIs). Conservatives, however, should tend to implicitly infer invariant rather than variant characteristics from others’ behaviors, drawing spontaneous trait inferences (STIs) rather than SGIs. Experiment 1 and 2 supported those hypotheses by illustrating differences in the type of implicit inferences formed by liberals and conservatives in a false recognition paradigm common to the STI literature. Experiment 3 revealed similar differences in conservatives’ and liberals’ goal and trait inferences when making open‐ended causal explanations for others’ actions.

The effect of stereotype activation on spontaneous inferences

We adopted the probe recognition paradigm to examine the effect of stereotype activation on spontaneous inferences among Chinese undergraduates (N = 48). First, behavioral sentences involving trait-implying behavior and corresponding situational information were simultaneously presented. We then selected stereotype labels of the actor's behavior that were consistent or inconsistent with the behavior, and which were activated either supraliminally or subliminally. The results showed that whether a stereotype was activated supraliminally or subliminally, the influence on spontaneous inferences was the same. Specifically, when the stereotype was inconsistent with the actor's behavior, spontaneous situational inferences were facilitated, and when the stereotype was consistent with the actor's behavior, spontaneous trait inferences were not facilitated. As Chinese people may be more prone to spontaneous (vs. trait) inferences, this indicates that human inferences are deeply influenced by culture.

Language as a ‘game changer’ for spontaneous trait inference

Abstract This paper provides a summary of the project regarding language and spontaneous trait inference (STI) interaction. For 40 years, different methodologies had been used to study STI. However, these methodologies used sentences to elicit the inference, but they were never controlled from a linguistic point of view. We studied STI behavior when sentences were modified by adverbs of manner and checked linguistic parameters to verify which had more importance when the inference occurred. Results show that not only these adverbs modify the strength for STI, but they sometimes also change which trait is preferably inferred by the participants, adding new traits which were not available if the adverbs were not inferred.

On the Assumptions That We Make About the World Around Us: A Conceptual Framework for Feature Transformation Effects

Various phenomena such as halo effects, spontaneous trait inferences, and evaluative conditioning have in common that assumptions about object features (e.g., whether a person is intelligent or likeable) are influenced by other object features (e.g., whether that person is attractive or co-occurs with other liked persons). Surprisingly, these phenomena have rarely been related to each other, most likely because different phenomena are described using different terms. To overcome this barrier, we put forward a conceptual framework that can be used to describe a wide range of these phenomena. After introducing the four core concepts of the framework, we illustrate how it can be applied to various phenomena. Doing so helps to reveal similarities and differences between those phenomena, thus improving communication and promoting interactions between different areas of research. Finally, we illustrate the generative power of the framework by discussing some of the new research questions that it highlights.

Spontaneous trait inference and transference: Exploring the link between names and traits

Investigação passada demonstrou que as pessoas realizam inferências espontâneas de traços (IET) a partir de comportamentos e que esses traços de personalidade ficam ligados em memória às faces dos actores. A investigação demonstrou também que os traços inferidos podem ficar associados a faces de comunicadores dos comportamentos, através de um processo de transferência espontânea de traço (TET). No presente estudo, substituimos as faces dos indivíduos por nomes, de forma a investigar em que medida os nomes dos actores e comunicadores (e.g., Carl Smith) também ficam associados em memória aos traços inferidos. Nestas condições, obtivemos dados que comprovam a ocorrência de IETs, mas não de TETs. Estes resultados mostram que a associação entre traços e comunicadores (TET) é altamente dependente da saliência visual do comunicador. Em contraste, as IET ocorrem mesmo quando o actor não é visualmente saliente. Os resultados são discutidos em termos dos processos subjacentes às IETs e TETs.

The Primacy-of-Warmth Effect on Spontaneous Trait Inferences and the Moderating Role of Trait Valence: Evidence From Chinese Undergraduates.

Research has shown that warmth and competence are the fundamental content dimensions underlying social judgment, and warmth judgments are primary. However, the overwhelming majority of research concerning “primacy-of-warmth” rests on trait judgment or lexical recognition, and little attention has been paid to spontaneous trait inferences (STIs) that are made on exposure to trait-implying behaviors. Two studies were performed to examine the primacy-of-warmth effect on STIs and to further explore whether trait valence moderates the effect. Consistent with our expectations, the results of Experiments 1 and 2 (for spontaneous trait activation and spontaneous trait binding, respectively) consistently demonstrated the primacy-of-warmth on STIs. Participants were more likely to draw STIs from behaviors implying warmth traits than those implying competence traits. Moreover, the primacy-of-warmth effect on STIs was moderated by trait valence. In concrete terms, participants were more likely to draw STIs from negative warmth behavioral sentences than negative competence behavioral sentences, whereas participants draw STIs from positive warmth behavioral sentences and from positive competence behavioral sentences equally. An original contribution made by our study is that we obtained the primacy-of-warmth effect on STIs, providing further evidence for the primacy-of-warmth effect in the domain of implicit social cognition.

Personality in faces: Implicit associations between appearance and personality

AbstractHow accurate are the spontaneous trait inferences made to faces? Here we measured implicit associations between facial appearance and personality traits, using faces conveying objective appearances of Extraversion and Agreeableness. In the standard or “uncrossed” conditions of Experiment 1, we found that descriptions of high and low Agreeableness and Extraversion were spontaneously and accurately associated with their objective trait appearance. In Experiment 2, to test the specificity of this effect, we “crossed” the Implicit Association Tests, pairing faces conveying high and low Extraversion with words describing characteristics of high and low Agreeableness, and the reverse. We found evidence for associations specific to objective appearance of Agreeableness, and a general halo effect relating to Extraversion. We conclude that spontaneous assessment of personality from faces can be accurate, and can be based on trait‐specific as well as general visual cues.

Differentiating the effects of anger and sadness: A perspective of spontaneous trait inference.

In the present research, three experiments were conducted to examine the effects of anger and sadness on spontaneous trait inferences (STIs). Using a probe recognition paradigm, Experiment 1 revealed that angry participants made more errors in response to probes following trait-implying behaviours than sad participants did. Using a false recognition paradigm, Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that angry participants made more errors in response to systematic pair trials than sad participants did. The three experiments provided convergent evidence that angry individuals were more inclined to form STIs than sad individuals were. The current research first demonstrated the different effects of specific negative mood states (anger vs. sadness) on STIs, providing further insight into the relationship between mood and STIs.

Beauty stereotypes affect the generalization of behavioral traits associated with previously seen faces

People make split-second inferences about a third person's trustworthiness. It has also been shown that beauty stereotypes govern our social judgments of, and expectations towards, others. In this study, we aim to investigate the effect of positive and negative behavioral descriptions on perceived trustworthiness of male faces varying in attractiveness. We created four categories of faces: attractive and trustworthy faces paired with either positive or negative descriptions, and unattractive and untrustworthy faces paired with either positive or negative descriptions. Furthermore, we generated a composite face from the individual faces within each category (4 composites in total). We applied two conditions: in the first condition, participants saw the stimuli 5 times during the learning phase; in the second, the stimuli were presented only 3 times. We found that stereotype-inconsistent descriptions had a greater effect on Spontaneous Trait Inferences (STI) than stereotype-consistent ones. Furthermore, negative social information affected the STI process more strongly than positive information did. We also revealed a clear learning effect related to the number of stimulus presentations whereby the importance of the social information in trustworthiness decisions increased as did the number of stimulus presentation. These results demonstrate a stereotype-inconsistent effect and the dynamic process of stereotype formation.

Acknowledging the role of word-based activation in spontaneous trait inferences

The paper introduces a discussion about a confounder present in studies that explore Spontaneous Trait Inferences (STI). Typically, in these studies, trait-implying behavioral descriptions are employed. When preparing these materials, the main objective is to create sentences that strongly activate personality traits about the actor of the behavior. A potential problem, however, is the possibility of the trait being activated by specific words in the sentence - word-based priming - and not, or not only, by the meaning of the sentence as a whole – a real inference made based on the behavior. Crucially, this aspect has been recurrently ignored in previous research. In the present paper we suggest a way of dealing with this confounder. We created 128 trait-implying sentences and their rearranged versions. The rearranged sentences had the same words as the trait-implying sentences, but the words were rearranged in such a way that the sentences no longer implied the trait. Only if there is a difference between the two versions we can assume there is an inferential process going taking place. We discuss how this aspect may have obscured the interpretation of previous results, and suggest ways for minimizing this problem in future studies.

Spontaneous Trait Inference and Behavioral Prediction: Effects of Change in Psychological Distance

Spontaneous Trait Inference and Behavioral Prediction: Effects of Change in Psychological Distance

Multiple Behavior Descriptions Affect the Acquisitions of STI and STT

Four studies pursued the idea that spontaneous trait inferences (STIs) involve the formation of both inferential knowledge and associative knowledge while spontaneous trait transferences (STTs) involve only the formation of associative knowledge. These studies varied the type and amount of behavioral information from which perceivers could extract trait information. Experiments 1a and 1b used a modified savings-in-relearning paradigm and demonstrated that repeated presentations of an individual and a behavior description increased the strength of association between the target and implied trait, and this effect did not depend on whether the repeated presentations involved redundant information or new information. In comparison, Experiments 2a and 2b used a trait ratings dependent variable and demonstrated that the effects of repetition were stronger for STI, but not STT, when the added information differed from information that was previously encountered, but not when it was redundant with the previously encountered information.