Spirit Of Reform Research Articles

KONSTRUKSI PEMIKIRAN FIKIH SOSIAL KH. SAHAL MAHFUDZ

Abstract This article reviews Islamic law and fiqh as a side of Islam that many struggle with the dynamics of life. Fiqh which is related to the reality of everyday life is a treasure that is wide open across time, time and human development itself. In reality, the idea of ​​fiqh is mostly positioned as an absolute and tsawabit science, so that it becomes difficult to develop a spirit of ijtihad and reformation in a syumuli manner. This is where K.H Sahal Mahfudz tries to position fiqh as an analysis that is able to answer society's problems in a more progressive and transformative way. Social, societal and cultural conditions are facts of the ummah that also need a sharia foundation. This alignment and dialectic of fiqh with the social life of society is what K.H Sahal Mahfudz raised as a form of revitalization of sharia teachings that is sensitive to the ummah. It is hoped that the concept of social fiqh offered by KH Sahal Mahfud will actualize and optimize fiqh as a system of values ​​and behavior that continues to develop in society. Keyword: Social Fiqh, Ushul Fiqh, Sahal Mahfudz

Science in the service of politics. The cartographic representation of a local territorial context of the Kingdom of Naples in the early nineteenth century

The erudite priest Marciano Di Leo (1751–1819), a prominent personality in the historical and geographical panorama of his time, not only in his home territory, authored a vast literary and poetic production, but also tried his hand at producing some maps, referring to a province of the Kingdom of Naples. At a time when the principles of geodetic cartography had become increasingly known, even locally, hand in hand with improvements in technology and accuracy of measurements, the author reflects the historical narratives of progress of the European (and Neapolitan) Enlightenment and translates them into an unpublished manuscript of statistical, historical, and geographical nature, accompanied by numerous maps of various scales. The rediscovery of a largely unknown—and therefore not very thorough—minor cartographic production underscores the spread even in more marginal contexts of the most innovative ideas and increasingly precise scientific foundations in the cartographic-mathematical representation of the territory. It also illustrates the role of a number of intellectuals in the service of the political choices of their time, in an attempt-often unrealized-to bring about a decisive change of course in public administration, in accordance with Enlightenment ideals and in the spirit of reform that spread throughout Europe thanks to the French Revolution.

О ВОЗМОЖНОСТЯХ И ПРЕИМУЩЕСТВАХ ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ БИЛИНГВАЛЬНОЙ МОДЕЛИ ОБУЧЕНИЯ В ШКОЛАХ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНА

On the Possibilities and Advantages of Using a Bilingual Education Model in Azerbaijani Schools Summary The transition to a bilingual (multilingual) model of education in classes with foreign languages of education in Azerbaijan meets modern requirements and the national interests of the country, corresponds to the spirit and calls of reforms, as well as the content and structural renewal of the educational system of the republic. In classes with Russian or English as the language of education, the state language of the country should also have the status of the language of education, which will expand the opportunities for learning and using the Azerbaijani language in the educational environment. Key words: bilingual education model, classes with foreign languages of education, status of the language of education, state language, learning environment

The urgency of limiting the presidential term by the constitution in the discourse of extending the term of the President of Indonesia

The discourse on the extension of the president's term has sparked controversy in society. This paper aims to describe the controversy and analyze it based on the democratic conditions in Indonesia, as well as its connection to the prevailing constitution in Indonesia. The rules governing this issue are found in Article 7 of the 1945 Constitution, which restrictively regulates term limitations. This paper employs a legal study approach with a qualitative research method based on various printed and online document sources.The analysis reveals that the proposal for the extension of the president's term originates from within the government circles and is subsequently supported by party leaders, citing economic development, political stability, and high levels of satisfaction with the government's performance as grounds. However, opposition arises from political parties, legal experts, academics, survey institutions, students, and even the general public. The rejection is based on inconsistencies with the constitution, survey results indicating a desire for a change in national leadership, concerns about power abuse, and non-conducive socio-economic conditions. An unconstitutional extension of the president's term could lead to a regression of democracy in Indonesia. The constitution plays a crucial role as a barrier to preserve the spirit of Reform, ensure the rotation of national leadership, and serve as a hope for national political change. This paper seeks to fill the gap in analyzing the connection between term limitations, democracy, and the constitution in the discourse on extension.

Konstruksi Pemikiran Fikih Sosial KH. Sahal Mahfudz

This article reviews Islamic law and fiqh as a side of Islam that many struggle with the dynamics of life. Fiqh which is related to the reality of everyday life is a treasure that is wide open across time, time and human development itself. In reality, the idea of ​​fiqh is mostly positioned as an absolute and tsawabit science, so that it becomes difficult to develop a spirit of ijtihad and reformation in a syumuli manner. This is where K.H Sahal Mahfudz tries to position fiqh as an analysis that is able to answer society's problems in a more progressive and transformative way. Social, societal and cultural conditions are facts of the ummah that also need a sharia foundation. This alignment and dialectic of fiqh with the social life of society is what K.H Sahal Mahfudz raised as a form of revitalization of sharia teachings that is sensitive to the ummah. It is hoped that the concept of social fiqh offered by KH Sahal Mahfud will actualize and optimize fiqh as a system of values ​​and behavior that continues to develop in society.

ПЕТР ИВАНОВИЧ РЫЧКОВ – ПЕРВЫЙ РУССКИЙ БУХГАЛТЕР

The reign of Peter I marked a new stage in the development of accounting in Russia: bookkeeping began to be introduced into the legal state field, as a result of the reception of European accounting techniques, special accounting terminology arose, and in some government institutions a position “accountant” was introduced to maintain account books. Accounting historians have not yet come to a consensus on who should be considered the first Russian accountant. This article proposes to consider the prominent scientist-historian, geographer and economist Pyotr Ivanovich Rychkov (1712–1777) as such a person, describe his life path and provides facts about the professional activities of P.I. Rychkov, which served as the basis for the author’s conclusions. The research was carried out on the basis of archival materials stored in the St. Petersburg Institute of History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the State Archive of the Orenburg Region, the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, and the Central State Historical Archive of St. Petersburg. According to the authors, with his literary works, Pyotr Ivanovich Rychkov made a significant contribution to the development of accounting in Russia. His activities were always aimed at streamlining and rationalizing accounting, which corresponded to the general spirit of reforms in the sphere of public administration of the 18th century.

Staroobryadcheskie mucheniki i religioznoe distsiplinirovanie rubezha XVII–XVIII vv.

The study is devoted to strategies for polemics with the martyr discourse constructed by the Old Believers in relation to themselves and their own saints in the late 17th — early 18th centuries. Anti_Old Believer literature denounced the glorification of martyrs who suffered because of persecution or self-immolation as superstitions. It was part of the religious discipline. The article demonstrates that the veneration of “false” martyrs was characterized as hypocrisy long before the spiritual reform of Peter I. Opponents of the schism at the beginning of the 18th century (Feofan Prokopovich, Feofilakt Lopatinsky, Dimitry Rostovsky, I. T. Pososhkov) used the same ideas and techniques as the writers of the patriarchal circle (Afanasy Kholmogorsky, Ignaty Rimsky-Korsakov, etc.) and other authors of the 17th century (Simeon Polotsky, the creators of the Acts of the Moscow Councils, Juraj Križanić and the author of “Brozda Dukhovnaya”). They were all united in their opposition to the Old Believer ideas about holiness and soteriology. The disengagement of official polemicists became apparent in the Petrine era, when the ideas of rationalizing Christian piety and the monopoly of state power on martyrs became widespread, while other points of view on the path to the salvation of the soul were on the periphery.

The Expressions of Indonesian Muslims in Performing the ʿUmrah Pilgrimage to Mecca

Minor Islamic pilgrimages (ʿumrah) are increasingly being studied as part of commodified pilgrimages in the age of trade and tourism. This relatively modern construction has restricted researchers’ understandings of practices like pilgrimages to the graves of saints. This article compares two imagined Indonesian Muslim religio-cultural communities performing ʿumrah, utilizing a hybrid ethnography method to obtain data. The paper is structured in two sections. Firstly, it discusses how traditionalist Muslims understand ʿumrah as a means of maintaining the authority of the teachings of Sufi ʿulamāʾ. This group adopts the ethical principles of Sufi practices, which involve three key elements: reverence for Sufi ʿulamāʾ, observance of sacred times, and the recitation of prayers to obtain intercession (shafāʿah) and blessings in life (barākah). The second section explores how another group, guided by Muslim ethics, aligns ʿumrah journeys with the principles of capitalism within Islam. Using global and cosmopolitan Muslim perspectives, these spiritual reformers and coaches approach ʿumrah by creating practices suitable for the aspirations of the middle-class Muslims. They tailor the practice of ʿumrah, based on Islamic practices, to account for the ethical principles of self-managing individuals. This comparative presentation demonstrates diverse Muslim experiences, refraining from a homogenous expression of the ʿumrah. Ultimately, this paper advocates for more comprehensive studies of the ʿumrah pilgrimage in Indonesia, including ones that focus on nuanced expressions of pilgrims and diverse roles played by Islamic religious authorities, moving beyond simplified commercial interpretations.

Socio-Pedagogical Criteria for the Development of Informational-Analytical Component in Future History Teachers

Objectives: The main objective of this article is to explore the development of informational-analytical competence in the context of modern geopolitical processes and ideological struggles. The focus is on understanding how this competence can serve as a tool for addressing these challenges, particularly in the younger generation. The article aims to highlight the significance of historical and analytical thinking as a crucial element in constructing an enlightened society.
 
 Methods: The research methodology involves an analysis of thoughts and concepts related to the acquisition of historical knowledge. The emphasis is on the development of historical-analytical thinking and its role in shaping informational-analytical competence, especially in the context of future history teachers. The methods used include examining the connection between historical knowledge and the broader formation of analytical skills, which are essential components of informational-analytical competence.
 
 Results: The article presents findings related to the analysis of historical-analytical thinking and its impact on the acquisition of historical knowledge. It explores the potential for serious changes in the psyche of individuals through a correct understanding of the past. The results also delve into the implications of developing historical-analytical thinking for achieving spiritual reform in various aspects of life, lifestyle, and society.
 
 Conclusion: In conclusion, the article underscores the importance of historical-analytical thinking in the development of informational-analytical competence for future history teachers. It emphasizes that a deep understanding of the past not only enriches historical knowledge but also serves as a catalyst for profound changes in individuals and, consequently, society. The conclusion may also highlight specific criteria for the formation of informational-analytical competence, providing a basis for further research and practical implementation in educational contexts.

Meditation matters: The politics and networks of yoga and spiritual reform between Indonesia, India and the West, 1900s–1970s

ABSTRACTStarting from sites of yogic and Buddhist learning connecting Indonesia and India this article explores the politics, practices, transformation, dissemination and uses of knowledge on yoga and meditation in late colonial and postcolonial Indonesia, and their relation to moral geographies of Greater India. It follows, across (violent) regime changes, the trajectories of learning of a number of self-made experts and entrepreneurs in this field who were also involved in the postcolonial Buddhist reform movement in Indonesia: the Chinese Indonesians Souw Tjiang Poh (b.1929), better known, also as yoga guru, under his Buddhist name Yogamurti; and his meditation teacher, Tee Boan An (1923–2002), who, as Ashin Jinarakkhita, is more famous as motor behind the Buddhist reform movement in Indonesia from the 1950s onwards. Yogamurti's and Tee Boan An's histories of ‘yogic’ transformation reach back to ‘alternative’ spiritual reform trajectories of the Theosophical Society of late colonial times, and continue, across decolonization and the violent regime change of 1965, to those of the hippie trail of the 1970s. These spiritual and ‘Indic’ religious revivalist entrepreneurs provide alternative perspectives to the grand narratives of political history, yoga, ‘Indian religion’ or ‘Greater India’. Across regime changes, their paths crossed and they exchanged knowledge, thereby changing and reshaping social hierarchies as they moved within an ‘alternative present’ in which spirituality seemed a way to move forward to ‘alternative futures’.

Legal Research Concerning the Legal Status of Surat-Ijo Land Owned by the City Government of Surabaya

The emergence of the liberation movement for the residents of the Surat-Ijo land is a form of response to the phenomenon of injustice that has surrounded and shackled some of the people of the city of Surabaya which has been going on for a long time. The emergence of the liberation movement was encouraged and facilitated by a situation that upheld the spirit of openness and freedom of expression, namely the spirit of reform that arose in the post-New Order era. One (of the many) factors that gave rise to the liberation movement for the residents of Surat-Ijo land is the difference in understanding of the applicable laws and regulations, especially the regional land laws and regulations. This difference in views has led to different perceptions between the two parties regarding the status of state land rights that are occupied by residents. The form of conflict resolution regarding the Surat-Ijo land can occur when there is a unified understanding between the residents of the Surat-Ijo land and the City Government of Surabaya regarding land laws and regulations, both national and local. Efforts to resolve the conflict require a bold breakthrough, not just to be handled legally which only involves the two parties to the dispute, but requires the involvement of at least three ministries, namely the Ministry of Home Affairs, the Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning, and the Ministry of Finance. The settlement of the Surat-Ijo land conflict must be encouraged by the spirit of upholding justice and prosperity for all Indonesian people as the goal of the proclaimed Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (NKRI) in 1945.

Ismail al-Faruqi’s Tawhidic Approach in the Context of IOK

This study analyzed Ismail Raji al-Faruqi’s (1921-1986) fundamental ideas of education from the perspective of IOK and tawhidic framework and his critical contribution in articulating modern Islamic worldview and expounding its progressive and inclusive outlook. It set forth to discusses the ideas of Islamization of knowledge as envisaged and propounded in his major works that highlight the doctrine of tawhid and its overarching principle such as Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan, Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life dan etc. The study is based on library research using qualitative approaches by documenting sources derived from some major works of al-Faruqi and other relevant materials. The data was analyzed using descriptive, analytical, and comparative method. The study found that al-Faruqi has bring forth universal Islamic worldview that propounded transcendental religious and philosophical outlook based on his rational and universal premises. His philosophical ideal was founded on critical methodology of tawhid that was instrumental in projecting his Islamization of knowledge movement and in propounding its scientific and rational outlook in order to revived the spirit of reform and reconstructing ijtihad and reclaiming the universal and creative ummatic world order.

Tingkat Kesejahteraan Masyarakat Desa Himba Lestari di dalam Areal IUPHHK-HT di Kabupaten Kutai Timur, Kalimantan Timur

Local communities in forest management are interested parties. Investments in the forestry sector that utilize the area should be able to help regional development and improve the welfare of local communities. This study aims to understand the condition and level of community welfare in forest areas that have IUPHHK-HT. This research approach is descriptive qualitative by applying the interview method in data collection. The people in the study area are old settlers, most of whom are migrants from outside the area with low levels of education and low social status. The study area is a preparatory village that has very limited infrastructure for clean water, electricity, education, health and public infrastructure. The presence of the IUPHHK-HT company has not been able to provide welfare for the community. The level of social welfare there is still relatively low. In fact, the goal of Sustainable Forest Management (PHL) is not only sustainable production but must be able to provide economic, social and cultural benefits.Policy of fair social welfare and the spirit of agrarian reform should be able to answer economic and ecological challenges. The local community should not be used as an obstacle in the development of the timber industry in Indonesia.

Komparasi Sistem Perpajakan pada Masa Abu Ubaid dengan Sistem Perpajakan di Indonesia

This article aims to find out the comparison of the tax system during the Abu Ubaid period with the tax system in Indonesia. Abu Ubaid firmly believes that the principle of justice in the economy is very important to achieve economic and social welfare. Therefore, Abu 'Ubaid's Kitab al Amwal is an economic masterpiece that addresses pressing issues in the fields of law, politics, and international relations. The Islamic public financial system, especially with regard to government administration, is explained in great detail in Al-Amwal. Since taxes are a major source of revenue for the government, any reform must be carried out in a method with clear goals and benchmarks. Tax reform must also pay attention to the sustainability of the economy both domestically and internationally, the ease of implementation, and the efficiency of the resulting payments. The tax reforms of 1983, 1994 and 1997 were widely successful and widely criticized by politicians. In keeping with the reformist spirit, the government does not need to tighten its grip on power. The government has identified the Head of the Ministry of Finance's Budget Analysis Section as an appropriate point of contact for questions about how Indonesia's tax strategy is being implemented.
 Keywords: Comparison, Taxation during the Abu Ubaid period, Indonesian Taxation.

The Bottom Drawer: NETWORK’s Fifty Years of Political Ministry

The Bottom Drawer: NETWORK’s Fifty Years of Political Ministry Mara D. Rutten (bio) In the summer of 1978, Father William J. Brennan, SJ was attending the seventh legislative seminar of NETWORK Lobby for Catholic Social Justice, an organization formed by U.S. women religious, when news reached the attendees that Illinois had once again failed to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), one of the organization’s primary issues. “As a minority male,” he later wrote, “the mood made one uncomfortable. But once the cloud of depression passed, I was amazed at the resilient spirits of these 200 women.” When he expressed his own frustration with the hurdles that the amendment faced to Sister Maureen Kelleher, RSHM, she responded with equanimity. The women of NETWORK do not win too many, she reminded him, because “you see, Bill, we don’t espouse popular causes.”1 The causes they did work on were not those with much money or powerful interests behind them. Unlike other lobby shops, they did not have a particular client or agenda, unless one counted advocating for a just and equitable society on behalf of those living on the margins. Fighting for healthcare or workers’ rights while opposing military spending and tax cuts hardly endeared them to the powers that be. Thus it was a surprise when, in 2012, NETWORK, in the guise of “Nuns on the Bus,” took these issues on the road and became something of a media darling and the focus of adulation by justice seekers both in and outside the church. It had been a long time coming. A Call to Action NETWORK was founded shortly after the Second Vatican Council, when Catholic Social Teaching, a body of teachings emphasizing the [End Page 109] political, social, and economic implications of the gospel, was in vogue among those excited about the changes the church was undergoing. When Pope John XXIII called for a council charged with aggiornamento (bringing the church up to date), no single group of Catholics embraced the spirit of reform with more enthusiasm than American women religious. Vowed religious life itself underwent a renewal, with sisters reviewing their way of life in light of “the original spirit of the institutes and their adaptation to the changed conditions of our time.”2 They rewrote their constitutions, transformed their governing structures, and replaced their medieval habits with modern clothing. “These, however, were only the external changes,” Sister Anneliese Sinnot, OP wrote, “the more important transformations had to take place within the members.”3 Inspired by the council’s Gaudium et Spes, which reiterated the scriptural mandate to place the cry of the poor at the center of Christian discipleship, and the social movements of the 1960s, sisters who had previously worked in institutional church settings explored “open ministry,” or discerning their professional calling for themselves. Many went out into the world to live and work among those on the margins, becoming advocates for better housing, food security, workers’ rights, peace, and equal rights for LGBTQ, women, and people of color, shifting “the meaning of ministry . . . from church work to the work of the church.”4 Though long practiced at charitable works, the sisters received an education concerning the underlying causes of the problems they saw every day. “Sisters began to feel that they were running around stamping out brush fires as they tried to prevent gang wars or counsel drug addicts,” reflected Kelleher. “After reflecting on the causes of gang wars and the availability of drugs, they recognized the need to address themselves to action on the causes of these problems, causes related to unemployment, substandard housing and corruption in high places. And so this combination of study and experience has brought them to a new consciousness leading to a new response—organizing for social impact.”5 [End Page 110] Click for larger view View full resolution Sister Maureen Kelleher, RSHM, NETWORK’s first lobbyist on staff (undated) Photo courtesy NETWORK Lobby for Catholic Social Justice The sisters leaned heavily on Catholic social teaching as their guide. Sisters who had been moved by the spirit to engage in justice issues were galvanized when, in 1971, Pope Paul VI released his apostolic letter, Octogesima...

Education in the Al-Faruqi’s Perspective and Its Implementation in the Context of the Islamization of Knowledge

The paper analyzed Ismail Raji al-Faruqi’s (1921-1986) ideas on Islamic education and its significant impact on the Islamic world. It set forth to discusses the ideas of Islamization of knowledge (IOK) as envisaged by al-Faruqi through his works such as Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan, and Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life, which has contributed to a momentous breakthrough in Muslim education through its progressive and inclusive outlook and consciousness and vision of tawhid. The study was conducted based on library research. It qualitatively documented material and sources from significant works of al-Faruqi in archives, journals, magazines, books, transcripts, and other related materials. The data were analyzed using descriptive, analytical, and comparative methods. The study concluded that al-Faruqi has brought forth a universal Islamic worldview that propounded a transcendental religious and philosophical outlook based on his rational and universal ideal and standpoint. His philosophical ideal was founded on the critical methodology of tawhid that was instrumental in projecting his Islamization of knowledge project and propounding its scientific and rational outlook that aspires to revive the spirit of reform and reconstruct ijtihad and reclaim the creative and universal religious spirit and moral dynamics of the ummah. Al-Faruqi's contribution to the advancement of Islamic Education includes outlining the systemic and comprehensive principles and framework of the Islamization of Knowledge in education, social sciences, and the English language.

Expressivism, Pluralism, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman's “A Suggestion on the Negro Problem”

Expressivism, Pluralism, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman's “A Suggestion on the Negro Problem”

La traducción religiosa en España en el siglo XV

The 15th century was a turning point for the Church after a period of decline that threatened its spiritual foundations and social credibility. Translation played a decisive role at the time, making reality the spirit of reform in the religious institution. Translation was the medium in which the Church relied to introduce new ideas based on humanism, promote theology, and serve as a bridge in the evangelical mission, within and outside the borders of the kingdom. Its practice reached great goals among the religious and made it possible to publicize fundamental texts of the Bible, theology, philosophy, literature, and science of renowned European authors.

Philosophical Study of Third War between Afghan and British

The Third war between Anglo-Afghan started on 6th May 1919 and finally ended with an armistice on 8 August 1919. While it was essentially the minority of tactical victory for the British in so much as they were able to repel the regular Afghan forces, but in many ways, it was a strategic victory for the Afghanistan and Shah Amanullah khan. In fact, the beginning of the 20th century is the beginning of the strengthening of the reformist spirit of the governments. Influenced by the libertarian revolutions of the countries of the region, the intellectuals formed rescue groups against the intervention and colonial aggressions and tried to collect the secrets of the rulers in the affairs of the country. The first and second constitutionalists and the zealous youth of Afghanistan rose for the welfare of all from social justice to the formation of a non-authoritarian government. Even they sacrificed their lives for the purpose of realizing all this and were torn apart by the oppressors. They shed blood, sacrificed and left, but the history of the country never forgot them.

Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke by Peter James Yoder

Reviewed by: Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke by Peter James Yoder Mark Granquist Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke. By Peter James Yoder. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021. 207 pp. The author, who teaches at Reformed Theological Seminary, Dallas, examines the career and theology of Protestant pietist leader August Hermann Francke, focusing especially on his understanding [End Page 360] of the sacraments. This book is an important addition to our understanding of Francke, especially valuable because it is in English. Francke (1663–1705) was very important in the history of Pietism, even more (arguably) than the usually recognized founder of Protestant Pietism, Philipp Jakob Spener. Although Spener certainly ignited the pietist movement with the publication of his Pia Desideria in 1675, it was Francke (and his son Gotthilf) who organized the pietist movement through the establishment of educational and social service agencies in Halle, Germany. From his position in Halle, Francke directed a wide range of theological and ecclesiastical activities around the world. Francke shaped and defended its theology and activities against its critics. The importance of Francke is readily apparent in pietist activities in missions, education, and social services in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. What is less well known is the importance of Francke in shaping and developing Pietism as a theological movement seeking to remain within the confessional boundaries of Lutheranism. Scorn has been heaped on the pietists from several sides: from confessional-orthodox Lutherans who saw it a dangerous deviation from Lutheran dogmatic truth, and from later liberals who saw it as narrow-minded religious moralism. Certainly, it is possible to find examples of both tendencies, but it is inaccurate to blame these tendencies on Francke and those around him. Francke had a sophisticated theological system rooted not only in Luther and the Lutheran theological confessions, but also in the spirit of Luther's reformation, which was much more open to the themes of renewal and sanctification than Francke's critics would allow. Francke was able to develop a theology for the new awakening movement that allowed most pietists to stay within the bounds of Lutheranism, and to enliven and revive it as a religious force. To explore this, Yoder examines the centrality of the sacraments in Francke's theology, especially through his catechetical sermons. In good Lutheran fashion, Francke preached regularly on Luther's Small Catechism. Central to his thought was the idea of spiritual rebirth, or conversion, in which the believer seeks an awakening of [End Page 361] faith. But Francke constantly spoke of this awakening or rebirth (the word "conversion" has too many American overtones) as coming through the influence of the community of believers in the regular worship of the church and its sacraments. When Francke spoke of the sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's Supper, he did so within the framework of this experience of rebirth and awakening. The outward, formal elements of the sacraments themselves were a key in driving the believer to a deeper spiritual life. In this he wished to avoid a formalistic or perhaps mechanistic understanding of the sacraments—that they automatically delivered benefits regardless of the believer. To some of Francke's critics this seemed like he was moving away from traditional Lutheranism, but Francke thought he could find justification for this position in Luther's own catechism and other works. Francke was no separatist, and argued against those more radical pietists who sought to define a "pure" congregation of true believers as the true church. For Francke, the awakened believers in the church pushed the larger Christian community toward a renewal of the entire community. The question remains: what of the further trajectory of this theological emphasis? Some would fault Francke for later developments in Protestantism. Protestantism in the eighteenth century was developing and changing, but was this because of Francke, or was his nuanced understanding of the church and sacraments ignored? This work finally does not fully answer this question, but wisely leaves it for others to explore. Whether in the end you come down for or against Francke (or somewhere in the middle), this volume makes important...