Ancestor Worship Research Articles

Offerings a Reflection of God in the Tradition of the Bonokeling Community in Banyumas Regency, Indonesia

The purpose of this research are to find out the position of offerings in the Bonokeling community which they do regularly at a predetermined time. This research method uses qualitative descriptive with ethnographic type. Data were collected through observation and interview. Data analysis used interactive method. The result of the research found: 1) The offerings carried out by the Bonokeling community are a reflection of offerings to God and the spirits of their ancestors who are believed to realize safety, peace and prosperity; 2) The dish as an offering to God is an offering that has existed since the time of the prophet Adam, as well as the sacrifice performed by his two sons named Qabil and Habil; 3) God, who is embodied in the ritual of offerings, is included in the realm of the supernatural, the consequence is that human sacrifice and devotion are not offerings in material form, but respect through behavior and inner attitude reflected in the form of intention and sincerity as a taqwa (manifestation of obedience to God). Therefore, offerings buried for ancestral spirits are behaviors and attitudes that are not in accordance with the realm of the supernatural, because spirits in the supernatural realm do not require material offerings, except for human behavior and inner attitudes towards them, such as prayer.

Characteristics and Meaning of the ancestral rite in front of Geumryeongchong Tomb in Gyeongju

Characteristics and Meaning of the ancestral rite in front of Geumryeongchong Tomb in Gyeongju

No thanks: How an ideology of sharing, not reciprocating, ensures abundance in the forests of south‐eastern Cameroon

Abstract Reciprocity and relationality are themes which frequently emerge with respect to human–nature associations in Indigenous groups around the world. But many hunter‐gatherers have been shown to reject systems of reciprocity, instead favouring unconditional sharing both between each other and their environment through egalitarian social structures. Investigations of human–nature reciprocity in Central African hunter‐gatherers has been neglected. In this article, we investigate how Baka‐forest relationships intersect with concepts of reciprocity and what the implications are for forest managers. The work is the result of a collaboration between local knowledge holders and an anthropologist who carried out extensive ethnographic fieldwork in a Baka village in south‐eastern Cameroon. Through the examples of three phenomena—origin stories, human–animal shapeshifting, and forest and ancestral spirits—we show that the Baka hold a complex and deeply rooted relational connection with the forest, whereby the two are closely tied. The common notion of direct human–nature reciprocity whereby ‘giving back’ or ‘giving thanks’ that appears in such a diversity of contexts is not present in the case of the Baka. Rather, the focus is on celebrating the abundance of the forest experienced, expressed through sharing properly with others. There is no expectation that this will lead to getting something in return, but instead is known as the ultimate way to achieve joy. As the Baka consider themselves as part of the forest, ensuring their own well‐being is ensuring the well‐being of the forest, an ideology dependent on close relational ties. Extractive industries and mainstream conservation practices in south‐eastern Cameroon are often based on inappropriate approaches which may cause harm to forest communities and jeopardise the state of the forest in the long term. The social‐ecological philosophy we describe, which insists on caring for forest people as the primary means for caring for the forest, provides guidance for forest managers in the tropics and more widely in how to secure a sustainable future for both forests and people. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Prestise Batu Na Pir Sebagai Sarana Peningkatan Status Sosial Masyarakat Suku Batak Toba di Desa Silalahi II, Sumatera Utara

This study examines the tradition of building "batu na pir" in Silalahi II Village as a means of enhancing the social status of the local community. The research aims to analyze the prestige associated with batu na pir, employing an exploratory qualitative method with the theoretical framework of habitus, arena, and capital by Bourdieu. The findings reveal that batu na pir, which serves as a repository for the remains of ancestors, is a longstanding tradition of the Batak Toba people, maintained due to their strong belief in the power of ancestral spirits. The size and grandeur of batu na pir play a significant role in elevating the social status of its owner, leading the community to compete in constructing larger and more luxurious batu na pir. This study recommends education to prevent unhealthy competition and emphasizes the importance of preserving the tradition's original purpose as a form of respect for ancestors.

Cult of the Dead: A Brief History of Christianity by Kyle Smith (review)

Cult of the Dead: A Brief History of Christianity by Kyle Smith (review)

ELEMENTS OF ANCIENT BELIEFS IN BASHKIR MATERNITY RITUALS

The article deals with some customs and rituals associated with childbirth. The relevance of the conducted research is conditioned by the growing interest in the role of ethno-cultural values in modern society and increasing attention to the previously underexplored phenomena of everyday life. The study of folk customs, rituals and representations related to childbirth will contribute to the understanding of the deep layers of Bashkir spiritual culture. Maternity rituals represent an important aspect of Bashkir cultural tradition. It encompasses prenatal, as well as birth and postnatal rituals, which to this day play an important role in the formation of family and social ties. The aim of the study is to identify elements of ancient beliefs in the Bashkirs' maternity rituals. An integrated approach, involving the analysis of ethnographic, historical, philosophical and folklore scientific works, was applied to achieve this goal. The research was based on a wide range of published and unpublished sources. The research revealed that the Bashkirs' maternity ritual is based on the ancient beliefs and ideas of the Bashkirs about man, nature and the world as a whole. It includes elements of animism, totemism, fetishism and magic. Important aspects of ritualism are connected with the protection of the child and the woman in labor, as well as with the first 40 days and the first year of the child's life. The elements of ancient beliefs revealed in the course of the research are manifested in the belief in the existence of spirits and souls, totem, in the ancestor worship, and are connected with beliefs in the protective properties of certain objects of the material world. The Bashkirs' maternity rituals include components of apotropaic, procreative and sympathetic magic. The study made it possible to study more deeply the mythology, ancient religious beliefs and traditional culture of the Bashkirs, to trace the evolution of the Bashkirs' maternity ritual and their transformation in modern conditions, to reveal the general regularities of the development of ritual culture, as well as the specific features characterizing particular nations. The preserved actions of magical rituals connected with childbirth refers to their stability and ability to adapt to new changing conditions of life.

동심원 암각화의 제작 시기 및 상징성 고찰 - 영남 내륙 지역을 중심으로

The objective of this study is to determine the age of concentric circle petroglyphs and to elucidate the character of the sites and the symbolism of the motifs within their historical context. The determination of the age is a central yet challenging aspect of petroglyph research, given their exposure to external elements. This is true even for those found in burial sites, where various factors can influence the dating. However, the discovery of cup marks and concentric circle motifs on the cover stone of Songguk-ri No.1 stone cist tomb in Buyeo, which was investigated without exposure, provided a basis for examining the age by extracting common elements across regions. Consequently, it was determined that the concentric circle petroglyphs were engraved during the middle to late Bronze Age. The ages were delineated to estimate the diffusion routes. The middle to late Bronze Age, characterized by advanced agricultural practices, witnessed significant social changes and the emergence of social stratification. In this context, burial sites with engraved petroglyphs are understood to be spaces that went beyond simple funerary rites to include ancestor veneration and other ritualistic purposes. Additionally, the presence of petroglyphs on vertical rock faces near watersides suggests these sites were multifunctional ceremonial spaces, likely used for rituals promoting prosperity and other communal activities. Thus, sites with concentric circle petroglyphs are understood to be ceremonial spaces, and the motifs themselves are interpreted within this context. While the symbolism of these motifs is widely debated, with suggestions including the sun or water, their locations and the historical context suggest a stronger association with water rather than the sun.

Korelasi Antara Puyang dan Masyarakat Dalam Tradisi Sedekah Dusun Di Desa Cambai Kota Prabumulih

This research is entitled "Correlation Between Puyang and Community in the Dusun Almsgiving Tradition in Cambai Village, Prabumulih City" relating to the bond of puyang as an identity that originates from the community. Puyang is believed to be the founding ancestor and shaper of a civilization for the lives of the people of South Sumatra in ancient times. The figure of the puyang continues to be believed in by society's primitive beliefs, namely animism as a belief in the spirits of ancestors which has become a tradition passed down from generation to generation in everyday life. The main issues in this research are: [1] What are the oral traditions that developed in the Cambai Village community regarding their origins? [2] What is the process of implementing the village alms tradition in Cambai Village? [3] What is the relationship between the puyang and the people of Cambai Village in carrying out the village alms tradition? This research method uses an ethnographic method, which is an approach to one of the qualitative research methods that focuses on the phenomenon of the correlation between Puyang and society in the Dusun Almsgiving Tradition in Cambai Village, Prabumulih City. The data sources used consist of: Primary data, namely direct observation in the field and conducting interviews. Meanwhile, secondary data includes books, journals, theses and articles. The data collection methods used by researchers are observation, interviews and documentation. Data analysis in this research uses analytical techniques, namely data collection, interpretation and writing of results which are carried out simultaneously. Based on the analysis of the research results and discussion, the researcher draws the conclusion that the Dusun Almsgiving Tradition has been carried out since ancient times by our ancestors and continues to be carried out from generation to generation until now, and the relationship between the puyang and the village community is established in this tradition.

Dual-Axis Worship Space of Buddha, Dharma, and Ancestors in Huayansi, Western Capital: The Liao Dynasty’s Political and Diplomatic Context (10th–11th Centuries)

The Huayansi 華嚴寺, situated at the frontier stronghold of the Liao Dynasty in the Western Capital, is a significant royal temple that preserves two main halls from the Liao and Jin Dynasties to this day. Through a systematic examination of the Liaoshi 《遼史》 and the related literature, this study offers a novel interpretation of the east–west dual-axial layout of the Huayansi and its historical significance. It further discusses the integral artistic space of the Buddha and the Dharma within the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall 薄伽教藏殿, which shapes the spiritual realm of the Western Pure Land, thereby repositioning and enhancing the historical value of the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall. The article elucidates the political and cultural core elements embedded within the formation of the parallel axes of the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall and the Mahavira Hall, which are closely associated with three pivotal years in the Liao Dynasty: 1038, 1044, and 1062. This not only reflects the grand historical context of the Liao Dynasty’s domestic governance and foreign policy during the 10th and 11th centuries but also encapsulates the rich and diverse religious beliefs and cultural traits of the Khitan 契丹 people. The axis space of the Bhagavata Scriptures Hall, constructed earlier during the reign of Xingzong 興宗 to house the Liao Canon 《遼藏》, along with the architectural complex of the Huayansi—named and commissioned by Emperor Daozong 道宗 24 years later—collectively establishes a dual-axial worship space at the Grand Huayansi, sanctified by the triad of the Buddha 佛, the Dharma 法, and the Ancestors 祖. This underscores the Liao Dynasty’s political objectives of deterring hostile states and ensuring national security within the framework of Buddhist veneration and ancestor worship.

The Holy Spirit as “the Gift” in Charles Nyamiti's Trinitarian Theology: A Pentecostal-Lutheran Dialogical Perspective

This article starts from the theology of the Tanzanian-born Charles Nyamiti (1931–2020), as one of the most creative in his generation of African theologians. Nyamiti proposed that ancestral veneration is a foundational human relationship which reflects divine realities. Thus, he proposed an understanding of the Trinity where the Father is the Ancestor, the Son is the Descendant, and the Holy Spirit is the mutual Oblation connecting the two. Because an ancestor does not exist as an ancestor without sacred ritual communication, the Holy Spirit becomes thus absolutely necessary for the Godhead. We maintain that Nyamiti's ancestral approach describes an African logic of gift-giving. Translating his theological contribution into gift-language preserves the theological insights while solving some of the logical problems with the ancestral imaginary, such as how the Father who never died is supposed to be the Ancestor. Through gift-language, Nyamiti's theological insights, which are based on African relational ontologies, become more readily applicable in World Christianity and have potential to transform ecumenism into a vibrant and inclusive embodied pneumatic action for abundant life. In other words, Nyamiti's theological heritage invites theologians to envision Christian faith beyond the confines of Hellenistic-based philosophy.

Study on the Symbols "Sheng" and "Zu" in Hongshan Culture Rock Paintings

Fertility and ancestor worship are important expressions of social ecology and natural views in Hongshan culture. Based on archaeological findings, numerous archaeological remains related to fertility have been found in Hongshan culture sites. These artifacts reflect the worship, respect, and emphasis on female fertility by the people of Hongshan culture. Additionally, Hongshan culture demonstrates reverence for its ancestors. Archaeological studies have uncovered numerous sacrificial sites and offerings, indicating the reverence and sacrificial activities towards ancestors during the Hongshan culture period. Ancestor worship evolved from primitive totem worship in transitioning from matrilineal to patrilineal societies. Recent surveys and field investigations of rock paintings in the Chifeng region have identified 130 individual "Sheng" and "Zu" character rock paintings, meticulously documented through data recording. Comparative studies of similar "Sheng" and "Zu" character symbols in artifacts and rock paintings from the Hongshan culture period reveal the culture's emphasis on fertility, ancestor worship, and reverence for life. These beliefs and cultural traits were fully expressed in Hongshan culture and profoundly influenced subsequent cultural developments and people's values. This study enhances our understanding of the beliefs and values of the people of Hongshan culture, their regard for life, fertility, and ancestors, and the role of these symbols in cultural transmission.

Exploring the Culture of Reverence for Ancestors in the Context of the Chinese National Community Consciousness

Exploring the Culture of Reverence for Ancestors in the Context of the Chinese National Community Consciousness

遯巖書院 소장 기록의 실태와 가치

Donam Seowon was established two years later in preparation from 1632. It became the home of Western politicians in Chungcheong Province while performing ancestral rites for Kim Jang-saeng here. Donam Seowon does not have many records considering its history and status. There are only 12 cases of Record Writings, kimun in the 1600s and 13 in the 1800s. In the early 1800s, books and documents were destroyed by fire, and the materials stored in the ‘Jeonghoedang(靜會堂)’ Mt. Cheonho in Yeonsan- hyeon were handed down. From the remaining records, we can see the situation until the Seowon was established and performed ancestral rites for Kim Jang-saeng in the 1600s. In addition, in the 1800, sefforts to straighten Seowon's status, the process of moving the seowon, and subsequent activities are revealed in detail. The beginning of Donam Seowon was Jeonghoedang built Mt. Cheonho in Yeonsan-hyeon and Ahanjeong along Yeonsancheon Stream in the mid-1500s. The Written Rosters of Yusaeng and regulations for education recorded here later became the standard for Donam Seowon management. The people who were educated in the Jeonghoedang and the Yangseong- dang established Donamseowon, and DonamguJek, which is documented how Donam Seowon was founded, and Written Rosters of Yusaeng, who made a list of people involved in the work every time additional ancestral rites for new person , show that seowon's influence first expanded from the Chungcheong area to Gyeongsang-do, Jeolla-do In the 1800s, as the scope narrows down and it can be seen that it was mainly operated by Gwangsan Kim Clan and Eunjin Song Clan in Yeonsan-hyeon. Because after Song Si-yeol's death, Hwayang Seowon in Cheongju became the main home of Noron-line. In addition, Donam Seowon's status was reduced by creating their own shrine in each Munjung that paternal blood group organized for the purpose of ancestral rites by descendants of a common ancestor. Donam Seowon spent a lot of money every year dealing with the flood damage, and then moved the building. In this process, registers(Yang’an/量案) were written that investigated and organized all the properties of Seowon. After Seowon Closure Order, as Local prefect(Su’ryeong, 守令) became the head of the seowon, there are jeolmok(節目) and a list of books(藏書錄) that show different situations. This was an effort to maintain the seowon.

An Evaluation of Cultural Symbolism of Selected Items on the <i>Lomolehin</i> Masquerade Costume

The masquerade culture is so significant and usually well celebrated annually among the Yoruba of South-western Nigeria that, just like their counterparts in the Eastern part and some areas in the former Middle Belt of the country, they cannot do without honouring their departed ancestors in costumed figures. This is a sequel to their strong belief in life after death and that these departed individuals have pivotal roles they play in the lives of the living. It is against this backdrop that the veneration of the dead via ancestral worship is taken seriously among the aforementioned ethnic groups. This paper, however, evaluates the cultural symbolism embedded in selected elements of the Lomolehin masquerade costume of Ogbomoso in Oyo State, offering insights into the rich cultural heritage and significance or even meaning of this traditional attire to determine their relevance in the masquerading tradition. A qualitative methodology was adopted using historical and descriptive approaches to analyze the cultural essence of the selected items, and collected data from the sampled population, using a purposive technique to exclude people that do not fit into the profile. By and large, the study articulates the nuances of the selected magical items on the Lomolehin masquerade costume and concludes that the items or amulets have dual functions in that they are both symbolic and aesthetic. However culturally, their symbolical values are more significant than the visual appeal and aesthetic sensibility the costume evokes. Hence, it is recommended that the potency of spiritual powers inherent in the various magical items on the costume such as Ado-Oyin and Arinu-Rode, among others, should be embraced, adapted and collaborated with relevant agencies to advance knowledge in technological studies to contain the diverse security challenges bedevilling the Nigerian space.

The Practice of Islamic Traditions among the Bugis in Bali

This study aims to explore the practice of the grave pilgrimage tradition in the Suwung Village, Denpasar, using qualitative methods. Interviews, observations, and document studies were conducted to gather data directly from the Bugis community during the grave pilgrimage. The results of the study show that the majority Hindu Balinese community can accept the Bugis migrants, who are Muslims, to express Islamic traditions in Bali. This expression of Islamic religious tradition is marked by the existence of ancient Islamic manuscripts in Muslim villages, one of which is the Bugis Suwung Village in Denpasar. Specifically, the traditions that are unique in this village are the tradition of Ngeruwah (praying for the spirits of ancestors before the arrival of the month of Ramadan), the tradition of Pagelicing Qur’an (parading the Qur’an), and the tradition of grave pilgrimage. However, the tradition of parading the Qur’an has not been practised since the 1970s. This was done because the tradition was feared to be cultised by the Muslim community in the region.

The Influence of Land Scarcity on Funeral Method Preferences in the Chinese Community

Chinese public cemeteries in Malaysia, also known as "Yishan," are dedicated burial sites specifically used by the Chinese community for the interment of their deceased loved ones. These cemeteries adhere to Chinese cultural and religious practices related to ancestor veneration and the afterlife. The cemetery land is mostly provided by the local government, and the local association is responsible for managing the cemetery. Since the Yishan located in the city are already nearing saturation, the government cannot afford to allocate land for new Yishan to the relevant guild members, making many Yishan difficult to find. Additionally, Chinese graves occupy more land than those of other races due to the burial practices. Consequently, the Chinese community faces a shortage of burial land, often having to resort to more expensive private cemeteries. This paper is based on a proposal by the Selangor senior exco member, Datuk Teng Chang Khim, to address the issue of land scarcity for Chinese burials. Teng expressed the Malaysia Funeral Association's intention to promote flower burial in Malaysia, a method that uses less land, to alleviate this problem. Therefore, this research aims to identify the funeral methods preferred by the Chinese community and determine their preferences for these methods. In this study, quantitative analysis was adopted to collect data. Central Malacca was chosen as the research location because it is one of the states in Malaysia with a large Chinese population and may face cemetery land scarcity. A total of 384 respondents were needed for this analysis. The results indicate a high preference for flower burial among the respondents. Other methods, such as sea burial and ice burial, also showed satisfactory preference levels. Thus, this research provides insight to the Malaysia Funeral Association that the Chinese community in Malacca is interested in and prefers alternative funeral methods, such as flower burial, which could help address the issue of land scarcity for cemeteries in the future.

유교 성리학에서 귀신을 理로 볼 수 있는가 -氣의 소멸과 불멸의 理를 통한 새로운 귀신론 모색-

This paper suggests a reexamination and a new understanding of the Gui-Shen(鬼神) theory within Confucian Neo-Confucianism. The text is based on the concept of the extinction of Qi and the immortal Li. Traditional Neo-Confucianism considers Gui-Shen(鬼 神) to be the persisting Qi after death, influenced decisively by Zhu-Xi. In other words, it is believed that responsive Qi continues for a while after human death. This article, after presenting several issues with the existing 'Gui-Shen theory,' proposes an alternative view that considers Gui-Shen as Li. It emphasizes the Chung-brothers(二程)' stance, which sees Gui-Shen as 'traces of harmony(造化之迹),' differing from Zhu-Xi. The Chung brothers never specifically identified Gui-Shen as Qi. Despite negative or vague reservations about Gui-Shen, the academic community readily accepted Zhu-Xi's Gui-Shen theory. However, regarding the dispersion of Qi, the Chung brothers asserted its disappearance, while Zhu Xi believed it could linger for some time after death, revealing a subtle difference in their positions. Nevertheless, both shared the idea that dispersed Qi ultimately ends in nothing with no further explanation. In this paper, 'traces of harmony' are considered as traces left by the dissipation of Qi, attempting a hermeneutic shift that when a human dies, Qi dissipates soon thereafter and remains as 'traces of life', immortalized as Li, representing a past that has passed. In modern terms, this Li can be seen as an information pattern left by a deceased person within the world. The 'Li as the past,' left behind by someone who has departed from this world through the traces of their life, always rides upon the 'Qi of the present moment.' Thus, those who remain can be seen as considering the deceased as if they are still living, projecting their presence forward. Additionally, the 'Li(理)'s Ghost theory attempts to provide a clue to 'overcoming the problem of extinction of existence', left unfinished by the Chung brothers and Zhu-Xi, through 'Li returning to Taiji(太極)'. This connects with <Taiji, which sums up all Li>, rather than Gui-Shen as a posthumous being. The author suggests that the religiosity of Confucianism is not found in ancestral rites for ancestors[Gui-Shen] who exist after death, but rather in the 'non-religious religion' discovered in <daily embodiment of Taiji(太極)/Heavenly principles(天理)>. This proposal aims to align with the core nature of Confucianism while prioritizing 'service to people' over 'service to Gui-Shen' and 'life in this world' over 'after death', reflecting an attempt to better capture Confucius's original intent.

Integrating Qur'anic Recitation in Local Traditions: A Study of the Kenduri Opat Pekara in Bahgie Bertona Village, Gayo-Aceh

This study aims to explore the application of Surah Al-Mu'awwidzatain within the kenduri opat pekara tradition in Bahagie Bertona Village, Aceh, to understand its ceremonial practices and spiritual significance. The research investigates how the Surah is integrated into local customs, highlighting its role in providing protection and blessings during community rituals. The study employs a qualitative descriptive methodology with a phenomenological approach, focusing on field research. Data were collected through direct observation, in-depth interviews with religious leaders and community members, and document analysis. Triangulation was used to enhance the validity and reliability of the findings. Results indicate that the kenduri opat pekara tradition involves specific preparations believed to appease ancestral spirits, coupled with the recitation of Surah Al-Mu'awwidzatain to invoke divine protection and blessings. The community exhibits diverse interpretations of the Surah's significance, reflecting a complex interplay between Islamic teachings and local cultural practices. The conclusion suggests that the tradition goes beyond the normative use of the Qur'an, integrating it into local customs to strengthen social cohesion and cultural heritage within the Gayo community.

The socio-spatial making and breaking of the rural commons in Hong Kong

ABSTRACT Protecting traditional common properties is essential for heritage conservation and fulfilling people’s multifaceted needs without relying solely on the market. This paper argues that the fate of commons is related to the values and dynamics of commoners in response to the long-term and broader socio-economic, political, and spatial development and planning practices at different geographical scales. Specifically, we examine the rural commons, the Tso (zu 祖) Tong (tang 堂) land (TTL), in the New Territories of Hong Kong. The New Territories accounts for over 80% of the city’s land. TTL has been in existence long before the development of the capitalist economy in the city. It was set aside in perpetuity by an ancestor to benefit all male descendants, sustain a clan’s ancestral worship, and provide a safety net for its members. Unanimous consent is required to sell TTL. Whether the rural commons thrive or perish would depend on the resilience of the commoners in resolving internal conflicts and articulating the relevance of their commons to the territories’ broader interests. Integrating the rural commons into territorial development and planning will provide spaces for “possible alternatives” to improve people’s livelihoods and identities as well as the cultural heritage of a place.

Tradisi Nasi Ambeng sebagai Adat Mendoakan Leluhur dan Menjalin Silaturahmi di Masyarakat Kecamatan Sooko Kabupaten Ponorogo Provinsi Jawa Timur

The ruwahan tradition is the tradition of sending prayers to the ancestors independently each family and also together using an Ambengan which is carried out in the mosque. Ambengan is food as a symbol to send prayers and ask God for the safety of the ancestral spirits of the Sooko Ponorogo hamlet community. The people of Sooko Ponorogo Hamlet usually send prayers for a pilgrimage to the grave after the 15th of the month of Syaban. The ruwahan tradition is carried out to send prayers and remind people of their deceased ancestors. This ruwahan tradition has existed for a long time, therefore people now only preserve or continue the tradition. Along with time, the implementation of the ruwahan tradition experienced dynamics by summarizing the tradition. This makes it easier for people to carry out the tradition, but on the other hand there is a cut in the tradition that will reduce the richness of the pre-existing culture.