Spike Receptor-binding Domain Research Articles

Efficient transplacental transfer of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies between naturally exposed mothers and infants in Accra, Ghana

We aimed to determine SARS-CoV-2 antibody seropositivity among pregnant women and the transplacental transfer efficiency of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies relative to malaria antibodies among SARS-CoV-2 seropositive mother-cord pairs. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Accra, Ghana, from March to May 2022. Antigen- specific IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 (nucleoprotein and spike-receptor binding domain) and malarial antigens (circumsporozoite protein and merozoite surface protein 3) in maternal and cord plasma were measured by ELISA. Plasma from both vaccinated and unvaccinated pregnant women were tested for neutralizing antibodies using commercial kit. Of the unvaccinated pregnant women tested, 58.12% at antenatal clinics and 55.56% at the delivery wards were seropositive for both SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein and RBD antibodies. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in cord samples correlated with maternal antibody levels (N antigen rs = 0.7155, p < 0.001; RBD rs = 0.8693, p < 0.001). Transplacental transfer of SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein antibodies was comparable to circumsporozoite protein antibodies (p = 0.9999) but both were higher than transfer rates of merozoite surface protein 3 antibodies (p < 0.001). SARS-CoV-2 IgG seropositivity among pregnant women in Accra is high with a boost of SARS-CoV-2 RBD-specific IgG in vaccinated women. Transplacental transfer of anti-SARS-CoV-2 and malarial antibodies was efficient, supporting vaccination of mothers as a strategy to protect infants against SARS-CoV-2.

Comparative Analysis of Nucleocapsid Antibody Levels, Neutralizing Antibodies, and Spike receptor-binding Domain in Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 Patients

ABSTRACT Introduction: Serological testing for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is crucial for detecting antibodies generated in response to infection. Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) target the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein (S-RBD) and can exist in the forms of immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgM, and IgA. This study aimed to assess specific antibody responses to the nucleocapsid protein (N), S-RBD, and NAbs and correlate them with the clinical spectrum of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Methods: A cross-sectional design was conducted at the Dr. Soetomo General Academic Hospital, Indonesia. We examined 48 patients with confirmed COVID-19 of varying severity (mild, moderate, severe, and critical) on treatment days 0, 3, and 6. We measured nucleocapsid antibodies, S-RBD, and neutralization using the chemiluminescence immunoassay method. The comparative analysis of IgM, IgG, NAB, and S-RBD levels is adjudicated using the independent t-test. Results: Specific antibody levels on treatment days 0, 3, and 6 showed significant differences (P &lt; 0.05). Notably, significant differences were observed in comparisons such as severe recovery versus severe death groups on day 0 in IgG, mild versus severe recovery on day 3 in IgM, moderate versus severe recovery, severe recovery versus severe death, and mild versus severe recovery on day 3, as well as on day 6 in anti-S-RBD, and mild versus severe recovery on day 3 and day 6 in neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 (P &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: These findings highlight the dynamic antibody responses during COVID-19 treatment and their relevance for clinical outcomes.

Assessment of an in-house IgG ELISA targeting SARS-CoV-2 RBD: Applications in infected and vaccinated individuals

The study aimed to assess an in-house Spike Receptor Binding Domain Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (RBD-ELISA) for detecting SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies in both infected and vaccinated individuals. Using the RBD recombinant protein, the assay demonstrated a sensitivity of 91%, specificity of 99.25%, and accuracy of 95.13%. Precision and reproducibility were highly consistent. The RBD-IgG-ELISA was able to detect 96.25% of Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) -confirmed cases for SARS-CoV-2 infection, demonstrating positive and negative predictive values of 99,18% and 91,69%, respectively. In an epidemiological survey, ELISA, lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (LFIA), and electrochemiluminescence immunoassay (ECLIA) exhibited diagnostic sensitivities of 68.29%, 63.41%, and 70.73%, respectively, along with specificities of 82.93%, 80.49%, and 80.49%, respectively. Agreement between RBD-IgG-ELISA/PCR was moderate (k index 0.512). However, good agreement between different assays (RBD-IgG ELISA/LFIA k index 0.875, RBD-IgG ELISA/ECLIA k index 0.901). Test performance on individuals' samples were inferior due to seroconversion time and chronicity. The IgG-RBD-ELISA assay demonstrated its effectiveness in monitoring antibody levels among healthcare professionals, revealing significant differences both before and after the administration of the third vaccine dose, with heightened protection levels observed following the third dose in five Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) vaccine regimens. In conclusion, the RBD-IgG ELISA exhibits high reproducibility, specificity, and sensitivity, making it a suitable assay for serosurveillance and for obtaining information about COVID-19 infections or vaccinations.

Evaluating Humoral Immunity Elicited by XBB.1.5 Monovalent COVID-19 Vaccine.

Because novel SARS-CoV-2 variants continue to emerge, immunogenicity of XBB.1.5 monovalent vaccines against live clinical isolates needs to be evaluated. We report boosting of IgG (2.1×), IgA (1.5×), and total IgG/A/M (1.7×) targeting the spike receptor-binding domain and neutralizing titers against WA1 (2.2×), XBB.1.5 (7.4×), EG.5.1 (10.5×), and JN.1 (4.7×) variants.

Co-Mutations and Possible Variation Tendency of the Spike RBD and Membrane Protein in SARS-CoV-2 by Machine Learning.

Since the onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 variants capable of breakthrough infections have attracted global attention. These variants have significant mutations in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein and the membrane (M) protein, which may imply an enhanced ability to evade immune responses. In this study, an examination of co-mutations within the spike RBD and their potential correlation with mutations in the M protein was conducted. The EVmutation method was utilized to analyze the distribution of the mutations to elucidate the relationship between the mutations in the spike RBD and the alterations in the M protein. Additionally, the Sequence-to-Sequence Transformer Model (S2STM) was employed to establish mapping between the amino acid sequences of the spike RBD and M proteins, offering a novel and efficient approach for streamlined sequence analysis and the exploration of their interrelationship. Certain mutations in the spike RBD, G339D-S373P-S375F and Q493R-Q498R-Y505, are associated with a heightened propensity for inducing mutations at specific sites within the M protein, especially sites 3 and 19/63. These results shed light on the concept of mutational synergy between the spike RBD and M proteins, illuminating a potential mechanism that could be driving the evolution of SARS-CoV-2.

Single Ferritin Nanocages Expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike Variants to Receptor and Antibodies

SARS-CoV-2 virus variants of concern (VOCs) have rapidly changed their transmissibility and pathogenicity primarily through mutations in the structural proteins. Herein, we present molecular details with dynamics of the ferritin nanocages stitched with synthetic chimeras displaying the Spike receptor binding domains (RBDs). Our findings demonstrated the potential usage of ferritin-based vaccines that may effectively inhibit viral entry by blocking the Spike–ACE2 network and may induce cross-protective antibody responses. Taking the nanocage constructs into consideration, we evaluated the effects of variants on the docked interface of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD with the ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) host cell receptor and neutralizing antibodies (Abs). Investigating the VOCs revealed that most of the mutations reported a possibly reduced structural stability within the Spike RBD domain. Point mutations have moderate or no effect for VVH-72, CR3022, and S309 Abs when bound with the Spike RBD, whereas a significant effect was observed for B38, CB6, and m396 over the surface of the H-ferritin nanocage. In addition to providing useful therapeutic approaches against COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), these structural details can also be used to fight future coronavirus outbreaks.

Design and Characterization of a New Formulation for the Delivery of COVID-19-mRNA Vaccine to the Nasal Mucosa.

Chitosan, a natural polysaccharide derived from chitin, possesses biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mucoadhesive characteristics, making it an attractive material for the delivery of mRNA payloads to the nasal mucosa and promoting their uptake by target cells such as epithelial and immune cells (e.g., dendritic cells and macrophages). In this project, we aimed at developing novel lipid-based nanoformulations for mRNA delivery to counteract the pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus. The formulations achieved a mRNA encapsulation efficiency of ~80.2% with chitosan-lipid nanoparticles, as measured by the RiboGreen assay. Furthermore, the evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) receptor-binding domain (RBD) expression via ELISA for our vaccine formulations showed transfection levels in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293), lung carcinoma cells (A549), and dendritic cells (DC 2.4) equal to 9.9 ± 0.1 ng/mL (174.7 ± 1.1 fold change from untreated cells (UT)), 7.0 ± 0.2 ng/mL (128.1 ± 4.9 fold change from UT), and 0.9 ± 0.0 ng/mL (18.0 ± 0.1 fold change from UT), respectively. Our most promising vaccine formulation was also demonstrated to be amenable to lyophilization with minimal degradation of loaded mRNA, paving the way towards a more accessible and stable vaccine. Preliminary in vivo studies in mice were performed to assess the systemic and local immune responses. Nasal bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) wash showed that utilizing the optimized formulation resulted in local antibody concentrations and did not trigger any systemic antibody response. However, if further improved and developed, it could potentially contribute to the management of COVID-19 through nasopharyngeal immunization strategies.

Forecasting SARS-CoV-2 spike protein evolution from small data by deep learning and regression

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants during the COVID-19 pandemic caused frequent global outbreaks that confounded public health efforts across many jurisdictions, highlighting the need for better understanding and prediction of viral evolution. Predictive models have been shown to support disease prevention efforts, such as with the seasonal influenza vaccine, but they require abundant data. For emerging viruses of concern, such models should ideally function with relatively sparse data typically encountered at the early stages of a viral outbreak. Conventional discrete approaches have proven difficult to develop due to the spurious and reversible nature of amino acid mutations and the overwhelming number of possible protein sequences adding computational complexity. We hypothesized that these challenges could be addressed by encoding discrete protein sequences into continuous numbers, effectively reducing the data size while enhancing the resolution of evolutionarily relevant differences. To this end, we developed a viral protein evolution prediction model (VPRE), which reduces amino acid sequences into continuous numbers by using an artificial neural network called a variational autoencoder (VAE) and models their most statistically likely evolutionary trajectories over time using Gaussian process (GP) regression. To demonstrate VPRE, we used a small amount of early SARS-CoV-2 spike protein sequences. We show that the VAE can be trained on a synthetic dataset based on this data. To recapitulate evolution along a phylogenetic path, we used only 104 spike protein sequences and trained the GP regression with the numerical variables to project evolution up to 5 months into the future. Our predictions contained novel variants and the most frequent prediction mapped primarily to a sequence that differed by only a single amino acid from the most reported spike protein within the prediction timeframe. Novel variants in the spike receptor binding domain (RBD) were capable of binding human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in silico, with comparable or better binding than previously resolved RBD-ACE2 complexes. Together, these results indicate the utility and tractability of combining deep learning and regression to model viral protein evolution with relatively sparse datasets, toward developing more effective medical interventions.

Neutralizing antibody response to XBB.1.5, BA.2.86, FL.1.5.1, and JN.1 six months after the BNT162b2 bivalent booster

ObjectivesAn increase evasion of the SARS-CoV-2 virus toward vaccination strategies and natural immunity has been rapidly described notably because of the mutations in the spike receptor binding domain and the N-terminal domain. MethodsParticipants of the CRO-VAX HCP study who received the bivalent booster were followed up at 6 months. A pseudovirus‐neutralization test was used to assess the neutralization potency of antibodies against D614G, Delta, BA.1, BA.5, XBB.1.5, BA.2.86, FL.1.5.1, and JN-1. ResultsThe neutralizing capacity of antibodies against the Omicron variant or its subvariants was significantly reduced compared with D614G and Delta (P <0.0001). The lowest neutralizing response that was observed with JN-1 (geometric mean titers [GMTs] = 22.1) was also significantly lower than XBB.1.5 (GMT = 29.5, P <0.0001), BA.2.86 (GMT = 29.6, P <0.0001), and FL.1.5.1 (GMT = 25.2, P <0.0001). Participants who contracted a breakthrough infection because of XBB.1.5 had significantly higher neutralizing antibodies against all variants than uninfected participants, especially against the Omicron variant and its subvariants. ConclusionsOur results confirm that JN.1 is one of the most immune-evading variants to date and that the BA.2.86 subvariant did not show an increased immunity escape compared with XBB.1.5. The stronger response in breakthrough infection cases with the Omicron variant and its subvariants supports the need to use vaccine antigens that target circulating variants.

Deciphering ACE2-RBD binding affinity through peptide scanning: A molecular dynamics simulation approach

Rapid discovery of target information for protein-protein interactions (PPIs) is significant in drug design, diagnostics, vaccine development, antibody therapy, etc. Peptide microarray is an ideal tool for revealing epitope information of PPIs. In this work, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) and the host cell receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) were introduced as a model to study the epitope information of RBD-specific binding to ACE2 via a combination of theoretical calculations and experimental validation. Through dock and molecular dynamics simulations, it was found that among the 22 peptide fragments that consist of RBD, #14 (YNYLYRLFRKSNLKP) has the highest binding strength. Subsequently, the experiments of peptide microarray constructed based on plasmonic materials chip also confirmed the theoretical calculation data. Compared to other methods, such as phage display technology and surface plasmon resonance (SPR), this method is rapid and cost-effective, providing insights into the investigation of pathogen invasion processes and the timely development of peptide drugs and other fields.

5-chloro-3-(2-(2,4-dinitrophenyl) hydrazono)indolin-2-one: synthesis, characterization, biochemical and computational screening against SARS-CoV-2

Chemical prototypes with broad-spectrum antiviral activity are important toward developing new therapies that can act on both existing and emerging viruses. Binding of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to the host angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor is required for cellular entry of SARS-CoV-2. Toward identifying new chemical leads that can disrupt this interaction, including in the presence of SARS-CoV-2 adaptive mutations found in variants like omicron that can circumvent vaccine, immune, and therapeutic antibody responses, we synthesized 5-chloro-3-(2-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)hydrazono)indolin-2-one (H2L) from the condensation reaction of 5-chloroisatin and 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine in good yield. H2L was characterised by elemental and spectral (IR, electronic, Mass) analyses. The NMR spectrum of H2L indicated a keto–enol tautomerism, with the keto form being more abundant in solution. H2L was found to selectively interfere with binding of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) to the host angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 0.26 μM, compared to an unrelated PD-1/PD-L1 ligand–receptor-binding pair with an IC50 of 2.06 μM in vitro (Selectivity index = 7.9). Molecular docking studies revealed that the synthesized ligand preferentially binds within the ACE2 receptor-binding site in a region distinct from where spike mutations in SARS-CoV-2 variants occur. Consistent with these models, H2L was able to disrupt ACE2 interactions with the RBDs from beta, delta, lambda, and omicron variants with similar activities. These studies indicate that H2L-derived compounds are potential inhibitors of multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants, including those capable of circumventing vaccine and immune responses.

Tracing the origin of SARS-CoV-2 omicron-like spike sequences detected in an urban sewershed: a targeted, longitudinal surveillance study of a cryptic wastewater lineage

The origin of novel SARS-CoV-2 spike sequences found in wastewater, without corresponding detection in clinical specimens, remains unclear. We sought to determine the origin of one such cryptic wastewater lineage by tracking and characterising its persistence and genomic evolution over time. We first detected a cryptic lineage, WI-CL-001, in municipal wastewater in Wisconsin, USA, in January, 2022. To determine the source of WI-CL-001, we systematically sampled wastewater from targeted sub-sewershed lines and maintenance holes using compositing autosamplers. Viral concentrations in wastewater samples over time were measured by RT digital PCR. In addition to using metagenomic 12s rRNA sequencing to determine the virus's host species, we also sequenced SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor binding domains, and, where possible, whole viral genomes to identify and characterise the evolution of this lineage. We traced WI-CL-001 to its source at a single commercial building. There we detected the cryptic lineage at concentrations as high as 2·7× 109 genome copies per L. The majority of 12s rRNA sequences detected in wastewater leaving the identified source building were human. Additionally, we generated over 100 viral receptor binding domain and whole-genome sequences from wastewater samples containing the cryptic lineage collected over the 13consecutive months this virus was detectable (January, 2022, to January, 2023). These sequences contained a combination of fixed nucleotide substitutions characteristic of Pango lineage B.1.234, which circulated in humans in Wisconsin at low levels from October, 2020, to February, 2021. Despite this, mutations in the spike gene and elsewhere resembled those subsequently found in omicron variants. We propose that prolonged detection of WI-CL-001 in wastewater indicates persistent shedding of SARS-CoV-2 from a single human initially infected by an ancestral B.1.234 virus. The accumulation of convergent omicron-like mutations in WI-CL-001's ancestral B.1.234 genome probably reflects persistent infection and extensive within-host evolution. People who shed cryptic lineages could be an important source of highly divergent viruses that sporadically emerge and spread. The Rockefeller Foundation, Wisconsin Department of Health Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis and Transmission.

Microfluidic Diffusional Sizing (MDS) Measurements of Secretory Neutralizing Antibody Affinity Against SARS-CoV-2

SARS-CoV-2 has rampantly spread around the globe and continues to cause unprecedented loss through ongoing waves of (re)infection. Increasing our understanding of the protection against infection with SARS-CoV-2 is critical to ending the pandemic. Serological assays have been widely used to assess immune responses, but secretory antibodies, the essential first line of defense, have been studied to only a limited extent. Of particular interest and importance are neutralizing antibodies, which block the binding of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 to the human receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) and thus are essential for immune defense. Here, we employed Microfluidic Diffusional Sizing (MDS), an immobilization-free technology, to characterize neutralizing antibody affinity to SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) and spike trimer in saliva. Affinity measurement was obtained through a contrived sample and buffer using recombinant SARS-CoV-2 RBD and monoclonal antibody. Limited saliva samples demonstrated that MDS applies to saliva neutralizing antibody measurement. The ability to disrupt a complex of ACE2-Fc and spike trimer is shown. Using a quantitative assay on the patient sample, we determined the affinity and binding site concentration of the neutralizing antibodies.

Impact of SARS-CoV-2 spike stability and RBD exposure on antigenicity and immunogenicity

The spike protein (S) of SARS-CoV-2 induces neutralizing antibodies and is the key component of current COVID-19 vaccines. The most efficacious COVID-19 vaccines are genetically-encoded spikes with a double proline substitution in the hinge region to stabilize S in the prefusion conformation (S-2P). A subunit vaccine can be a valuable addition to mRNA and viral vector-based vaccines but requires high stability of spike. In addition, further stabilization of the prefusion conformation of spike might improve immunogenicity. To test this, five spike proteins were designed and characterized, ranging from low to high stability. The immunogenicity of these proteins was assessed in mice, demonstrating that a spike (S-closed-2) with a high melting temperature, which still allowed ACE2 binding, induced the highest neutralization titers against homologous and heterologous strains (up to 16-fold higher than the least stabilized spike). In contrast, the most stable spike variant (S-locked), in which the receptor binding domains (RBDs) were locked in a closed conformation and thus not able to breathe, induced relatively low neutralizing antibody titers against heterologous strains. These data demonstrate that S protein stabilization with RBDs exposing highly conserved epitopes may be needed to increase the immunogenicity of spike proteins for future COVID-19 vaccines.

Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG Seroprevalence in Tyrol, Austria, among 28,768 Blood Donors between May 2022 and March 2023.

To provide updated estimates on SARS-CoV-2 antibody seroprevalence and average antibody titres for Central Europe. In repeat cross-sectional investigations (1 May 2022 to 9 March 2023) involving 28,768 blood donors in the Federal State of Tyrol, Austria (participation rate: 87.0%), we measured Spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) and Nucleocapsid IgG antibodies (37,065 and 12,645 samples), and estimated monthly seroprevalences and geometric mean titres. Median age of participants was 45.4 years (range 18-70); 43.2% were female. Spike RBD IgG antibody seroprevalence was 96.3% (95% CI: 95.6-96.9%) in May 2022, 97.4% (96.7-98.0%) in December 2022, and 97.9% (96.4-98.8%) in March 2023. Among seropositive participants, geometric mean titres increased from 1400 BAU/mL (95% CI: 1333-1471) in May 2022 to 1821 BAU/mL (1717-1932) in December 2022, and dropped to 1559 BAU/mL (1405-1729) by March 2023. Furthermore, titres differed markedly by vaccination status and history of infection, with being the highest in participants with booster vaccination and prior infection. In autumn 2022, Nucleocapsid IgG antibody seroprevalence ranged from 36.5% (35.0-38.1) in September to 39.2% (37.2-41.2) in December 2022. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in blood donors from Tyrol, Austria, was remarkably stable from May 2022 to March 2023. In contrast, average Spike RBD IgG antibody titres peaked in December 2022.

N-glycosylation of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein at Asn331 and Asn343 is involved in spike-ACE2 binding, virus entry, and regulation of IL-6.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is an ongoing global public health crisis. The causative agent, the SARS-CoV-2 virus, enters host cells via molecular interactions between the viral spike protein and the host cell ACE2 surface protein. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is extensively decorated with up to 66 N-linked glycans. Glycosylation of viral proteins is known to function in immune evasion strategies but may also function in the molecular events of viral entry into host cells. Here, we show that N-glycosylation at Asn331 and Asn343 of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is required for it to bind to ACE2 and for the entry of pseudovirus harboring the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein into cells. Interestingly, high-content glycan binding screening data have shown that N-glycosylation of Asn331 and Asn343 of the RBD is important for binding to the specific glycan molecule G4GN (Galβ-1,4 GlcNAc), which is critical for spike-RBD-ACE2 binding. Furthermore, IL-6 was identified through antibody array analysis of conditioned media of the corresponding pseudovirus assay. Mutation of N-glycosylation of Asn331 and Asn343 sites of the spike receptor-binding domain (RBD) significantly reduced the transcriptional upregulation of pro-inflammatory signaling molecule IL-6. In addition, IL-6 levels correlated with spike protein levels in COVID-19 patients'serum. These findings establish the importance of RBD glycosylation in SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis, which can be exploited for the development of novel therapeutics for COVID-19.

Mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor binding domain and their delicate balance between ACE2 affinity and antibody evasion.

Intensive selection pressure constrains the evolutionary trajectory of SARS-CoV-2 genomes and results in various novel variants with distinct mutation profiles. Point mutations, particularly those within the receptor binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein lead to the functional alteration in both receptor engagement and monoclonal antibody (mAb) recognition. Here, we review the data of the RBD point mutations possessed by major SARS-CoV-2 variants and discuss their individual effects on ACE2 affinity and immune evasion. Many single amino acid substitutions within RBD epitopes crucial for the antibody evasion capacity may conversely weaken ACE2 binding affinity. However, this weakened effect could be largely compensated by specific epistatic mutations, such as N501Y, thus maintaining the overall ACE2 affinity for the spike protein of all major variants. The predominant direction of SARS-CoV-2 evolution lies neither in promoting ACE2 affinity nor evading mAb neutralization, but in maintaining a delicate balance between these two dimensions. Together, this review interprets how RBD mutations efficiently resist antibody neutralization and meanwhile how the affinity between ACE2 and spike protein is maintained, emphasizing the significance of comprehensive assessment of spike mutations.

Design, synthesis and computational study of benzimidazole derivatives as potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents

As the human world has constantly been plagued by the COVID-19 pandemic since its emergence, researchers have been putting mountain-high efforts into designing new weapons to combat the virus. To join this battle against coronavirus, the present communication explores the synthesis of four benzimidazoles (1–4) from aromatic diamines utilizing two separate synthetic strategies. Afterwards, the synthesized four benzimidazole analogues along with sixteen previously synthesized benzimidazole analogues from our laboratory were subjected to in silico prediction of drug-likeness properties and ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity) parameters. Additionally, all the compounds were computationally evaluated through molecular docking analysis against four vital target proteins of SARS-CoV-2 namely the main protease, the papain-like protease, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and the spike receptor binding domain to gain insight into the interaction pattern of the ligands with the binding site residues of the protein targets and thus to analyze the SARS-CoV-2 inhibitory proficiency of the synthesized derivatives. Among the studied ligands, compounds 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 18 displayed excellent docking scores against two or more protein targets as compared to the established antiviral drugs Nirmatrelvir and Remdesivir. Based on the docking scores, the best four complexes (compound 18-Mpro, compound 2-PLpro, compound 1-RdRp and compound 2-spike-RBD) were subjected to molecular dynamic (MD) simulation to examine the stability of the complexes during the simulation period. This integrated molecular docking and MD simulation study suggested two compounds (1 and 18) that could be evolved as promising candidates for the design and discovery of new anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents.

A panel of multivalent nanobodies broadly neutralizing Omicron subvariants and recombinant.

The emerging Omicron subvariants have a remarkable ability to spread and escape nearly all current monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatments. Although the virulence of SARS-CoV-2 has now diminished, it remains a significant threat to public health due to its high transmissibility and susceptibility to mutation. Therefore, it is urgent to develop broad-acting and potent therapeutics targeting current and emerging Omicron variants. Here, we identified a panel of Omicron BA.1 spike receptor-binding domain (RBD)-targeted nanobodies (Nbs) from a naive alpaca VHH library. This panel of Nbs exhibited high binding affinity to the spike RBD of wild-type, Alpha B.1.1.7, Beta B.1.351, Delta plus, Omicron BA.1, and BA.2. Through multivalent Nb construction, we obtained a subpanel of ultrapotent neutralizing Nbs against Omicron BA.1, BA.2, BF.7 and even emerging XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16 pseudoviruses. Protein structure prediction and docking analysis showed that Nb trimer 2F2E5 targets two independent RBD epitopes, thus minimizing viral escape. Taken together, we obtained a panel of broad and ultrapotent neutralizing Nbs against Omicron BA.1, Omicron BA.2, BF.7, XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16. These multivalent Nbs hold great promise for the treatment against SARS-CoV-2 infection and could possess a superwide neutralizing breadth against novel omicron mutants or recombinants.

Characterization of a neutralizing antibody that recognizes a loop region adjacent to the receptor-binding interface of the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain.

Although the global crisis caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is over, the global epidemic of the disease continues. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of COVID-19, initiates infection via the binding of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of its spike protein to the human angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) receptor, and this interaction has been the primary target for the development of COVID-19 therapeutics. Here, we identified neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 by screening mouse monoclonal antibodies and characterized an antibody, CSW1-1805, that targets a narrow region at the RBD ridge of the spike protein. CSW1-1805 neutralized several variants in vitro and completely protected mice from SARS-CoV-2 infection. Cryo-EM and biochemical analyses revealed that this antibody recognizes the loop region adjacent to the ACE2-binding interface with the RBD in both a receptor-inaccessible "down" state and a receptor-accessible "up" state and could stabilize the RBD conformation in the up-state. CSW1-1805 also showed different binding orientations and complementarity determining region properties compared to other RBD ridge-targeting antibodies with similar binding epitopes. It is important to continuously characterize neutralizing antibodies to address new variants that continue to emerge. Our characterization of this antibody that recognizes the RBD ridge of the spike protein will aid in the development of future neutralizing antibodies.IMPORTANCESARS-CoV-2 cell entry is initiated by the interaction of the viral spike protein with the host cell receptor. Therefore, mechanistic findings regarding receptor recognition by the spike protein help uncover the molecular mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 infection and guide neutralizing antibody development. Here, we characterized a SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody that recognizes an epitope, a loop region adjacent to the receptor-binding interface, that may be involved in the conformational transition of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein from a receptor-inaccessible "down" state into a receptor-accessible "up" state, and also stabilizes the RBD in the up-state. Our mechanistic findings provide new insights into SARS-CoV-2 receptor recognition and guidance for neutralizing antibody development.