Spike Inflorescence Research Articles

Elymusmultiramosus (Poaceae), a new species from the north-western Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China.

A new species from China, Elymusmultiramosus Y.C. Zhang, sp. nov. is described and illustrated herein, based on morphological characters and molecular phylogenetic analysis. The taxonomic descriptions of E.multiramosus and the comparison with related species are presented. The taxonomic distinctiveness of this new species was inferred by Maximum Likelihood (ML) analysis and Bayesian phylogenetic analysis, based on the complete chloroplast genome sequence. It is assigned to the Elymus section and bears similarity to Elymusnutans Griseb. However, it can be easily distinguished from other species by its compound spike, in contrast to the simple spike inflorescence typical of those species. The compound spike is characterised by rhachillas that are extended at the base of the main axis, giving rise to 3-6 mini-spike-like branches. Notably, these branches significantly increase in length from the top towards the bottom of the compound spike. In the molecular phylogeny, Elymusmultiramosus from Qinghai, north-western China, is phylogenetically positioned as a distinct lineage. The lineage comprising Elymussinosubmuticus from Sichuan, east of the Tibetan Plateau and Elymusnutans from the Himalayas forms a sister group to Elymusmultiramosus, suggesting that these three species share a common ancestor that is distinct from the lineage leading to Elymusatratus from Gansu, north of the Tibetan Plateau.

A Survey of Verbena xutha Lehm. (Gulf Vervain) Morphological and Cytological Characteristics

Gulf vervain (Verbena xutha) is a herbaceous perennial native to the southern United States. The species produces attractive spike inflorescences that provide a source of food for many pollinators. Besides botanical classifications, pollen morphology and cytological traits of this species have not been documented until now. Gulf vervain was found to have 2n = 42 chromosomes, with the first report of 2C nuclear DNA content of 2.95 pg. Convex-triangular pollen grains averaged 37.18 μm in diameter, with 84% stainability after cotton blue staining to estimate pollen viability. This information brings light to the genetic makeup of gulf vervain and may aid in future breeding programs.

CRISPR/Cas9 editing of wheat Ppd-1 gene homoeologs alters spike architecture and grain morphometric traits.

Mutations in Photoperiod-1 (Ppd-1) gene are known to modify flowering time and yield in wheat. We cloned TaPpd-1 from wheat and found high similarity among the three homoeologs of TaPpd-1. To clarify the characteristics of TaPpd-1 homoeologs in different photoperiod conditions for inflorescence architecture and yield, we used CRISPR/Cas9 system to generate Tappd-1 mutant plants by simultaneous modification of the three homoeologs of wheat Ppd-1. Tappd-1 mutant plants showed no off-target mutations. Four T0-edited lines under short-day length and three lines under long-day length conditions with the mutation frequency of 25% and 21%, respectively. These putative transgenic plants of all the lines were self-fertilized and generated T1 and T2 progenies and were evaluated by phenotypic and expression analysis. Results demonstrated that simultaneously edited TaPpd-1- A1, B1, and D1 homoeologs gene copies in T2_SDL-8-4, T2_SDL-4-5, T2_SDL-3-9, and T2_LDL-10-9 showed similar spike inflorescence, flowering time, and significantly increase in 1000-grain weight, grain area, grain width, grain length, plant height, and spikelets per spike due to mutation in both alleles of Ppd-B1 and Ppd-D1 homoeologs but only spike length was decreased in T2_SDL-8-4, T2_SDL-4-5, and T2_LDL-13-3 mutant lines due to mutation in both alleles of Ppd-A1 homoeolog under both conditions. Our results indicate that all TaPpd1 gene homoeologs influence wheat spike development by affecting both late flowering and earlier flowering but single mutant TaPpd-A1 homoeolog affect lowest as compared to the combination with double mutants of TaPpd-B1 and TaPpd-D1, TaPpd-A1 and TaPpd-B1, and TaPpd-A1 and TaPpd-D1 homoeologs for yield enhancement. Our findings further raised the idea that the relative expression of the various genomic copies of TaPpd-1 homoeologs may have an impact on the spike inflorescence architecture and grain morphometric features in wheat cultivars.

Improving bread wheat yield through modulating an unselected AP2/ERF gene.

Crop breeding heavily relies on natural genetic variation. However, additional new variations are desired to meet the increasing human demand. Inflorescence architecture determines grain number per spike, a major determinant of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield. Here, using Brachypodium distachyon as a wheat proxy, we identified DUO-B1, encoding an APETALA2/ethylene response factor (AP2/ERF) transcription factor, regulating spike inflorescence architecture in bread wheat. Mutations of DUO-B1 lead to mild supernumerary spikelets, increased grain number per spike and, importantly, increased yield under field conditions without affecting other major agronomic traits. DUO-B1 suppresses cell division and promotes the expression of BHt/WFZP, whose mutations could lead to branched 'miracle-wheat'. Pan-genome analysis indicated that DUO-B1 has not been utilized in breeding, and holds promise to increase wheat yield further.

A REVIEW ON SHUNTHI (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO NIGHANTUS

Zingiber officinale Rosc. is well known common medicinal plant of India. The plant has got good medicinal importance. It is an herbaceous perennial plant of the family Zingiberaceae/ Scitamineae. It is a large tuberous plant with elongated leafy stems, spike inflorescence having yellow green flower. Adraka (Ginger) is the underground rhizome of the plant. It is cultivated extensively in almost all tropical and subtropical countries like India, China, Africa, and Australia. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 80% of people living in developing Countries depend on traditional medicines for their primary health care requirements. Shunthi is the dried form of Adraka and is prepared by boiling and drying the freshly peeled ginger root in alkaline solution (mostly quick lime) and dried in hot sunlight. In India kitchen ginger and shunthi are one of the important ingredients.

Phylogeny, Diversification Rate, and Divergence Time of Agave sensu lato (Asparagaceae), a Group of Recent Origin in the Process of Diversification.

Agave sensu lato is one of the most diverse and complex genera of Asparagaceae, with more than 250 species. The morphological, ecological, and evolutionary diversity of the group has complicated its taxonomical study. We conducted phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence data to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of the Agave genus. We included 107 species of the Asparagaceae family from which 83 correspond to the Agave sensu lato clade (Agave sensu stricto + Polianthes + Manfreda and Prochnyanthes, which together represent 30% of the genus) and as outgroups the genera Dasylirion, Hesperoyucca, Chlorogalum, Camassia, Hesperaloe, Yucca, Beschorneria, and Furcraea, in order to estimate the age and propose the history of their diversification. Previous studies postulated the relevance of the Miocene in the speciation rates of the agaves, as well as the relevance of the type of inflorescence in its diversification. However, these assertions have not been well supported. The analysis of chloroplast regions resulted in low resolution, which could be the consequence of the few variable sites. On the other hand, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) implemented in our analysis ensued in higher resolution and better support values. Our phylogenetic analyses recovered five groups; one is the Striatae group, which is the sister group to Agave sensu stricto clade. Within this clade, we found three main groups with high support; these groups are not related with previous morphological proposals. We also analyzed the dates of origin and diversification rates. A Bayesian analysis of macroevolutionary mixtures indicated two significant shifts; the first was identified at 6.18 Ma, where the speciation rate increased to 4.10 species/Mya, this shift occurred during the late Miocene period, characterized by the emergence of arid biomes in North America. The second was identified at a stem age of 2.68 Ma where the speciation rate increased to 6.04 species/Mya. Concerning the ancestral reconstruction state of the inflorescence type in the Agave sensu stricto clade, the spike inflorescence character was predominant in the early-diverging groups, whereas the late-diverging groups present panicle inflorescences as the predominant character and higher speciation rates.

Improving Seed Retention and Germination Characteristics of North American Basin Wildrye by Marker-Assisted Gene Introgression

Basin wildrye [Leymus cinereus (Scribn. and Merr.) Á. Löve] and creeping wildrye [Leymus triticoides (Buckley) Pilg.] are native perennial grasses cultivated for seed used for fire rehabilitation and revegetation in western North America. Although L. cinereus produces large spike inflorescences with many seeds, it is prone to seed shattering. Seed can be harvested before shattering, but often displays poor germination and seedling vigor. Conversely, L. triticoides has fewer seeds per spike, but relatively strong seed retention. Both species are allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 28) and form fertile hybrids used for breeding and genetic research. A dominant, major-effect seed-shattering gene (SH6) from L. cinereus was previously identified in an L. triticoides backcross population. In this study, a DNA marker was used to select the recessive L. triticoides seed-retention allele (sh6) in cycle six (C6) of a L. cinereus × L. triticoides breeding population and evaluate gene × harvest date effects on seed yield and germination characteristics in a full-sib family derived from homozygous (sh6/sh6) and heterozygous (SH6/sh6) C6 parents. Although seed yields of shattering genotypes were 19.4% greater than non-shattering genotypes on the first harvest dates, yields of non-shattering genotypes were 167% greater on the last harvest dates. Seed harvested on the last harvest date reached 50% germination 4.2 days (26.4%) earlier and displayed 20.5% higher upper percentage germination limits than seed harvested on the first harvest date. Results indicate that the sh6 seed-retention gene will improve basin wildrye seed retention and indirectly improve seed germination by enabling later harvest dates.

Supernumerary Spikelet Wheat Forms as Models for Studying Genetic Regulation of Inflorescence Development

Almost all wheat species have an unbranched spike. Tetraploid rivet wheat Triticum turgidum L., branched forms of which are widespread and have been known for about 2000 years, is an exception. As for other wheat species, supernumerary spikelet forms are rare, and supernumerary spikelet/branched spike belongs to nonstandard morphotypes. As one of the examples illustrating the law of homologous series in variation, N.I. Vavilov presented the trait “spike branching” peculiar “not only to many wheat and rye species but also to many other genera with spike inflorescence or panicle.” The studies of genetic factors underlying the formation of “supernumerary spikelet/spike branching” trait and the study of peculiarities of the development of inflorescences of nonstandard branched wheat forms made it possible to demonstrate a genetic nature of hereditary variation of this trait. At the same time, the group of supernumerary spikelet/branched-lines is heterogeneous, and different genetic mechanisms can underlie the formation of branched spike. This review presents a retrospective of scientific studies devoted to the creation of supernumerary spikelet wheat forms and to the study of genetics of “supernumerary spikelet/spike branching” trait and demonstrates the results of modern studies of genetic regulation of morphogenesis of cereal inflorescences using supernumerary spikelet lines as genetic models.

COMPOSITUM 1 contributes to the architectural simplification of barley inflorescence via meristem identity signals

Grasses have varying inflorescence shapes; however, little is known about the genetic mechanisms specifying such shapes among tribes. Here, we identify the grass-specific TCP transcription factor COMPOSITUM 1 (COM1) expressing in inflorescence meristematic boundaries of different grasses. COM1 specifies branch-inhibition in barley (Triticeae) versus branch-formation in non-Triticeae grasses. Analyses of cell size, cell walls and transcripts reveal barley COM1 regulates cell growth, thereby affecting cell wall properties and signaling specifically in meristematic boundaries to establish identity of adjacent meristems. COM1 acts upstream of the boundary gene Liguleless1 and confers meristem identity partially independent of the COM2 pathway. Furthermore, COM1 is subject to purifying natural selection, thereby contributing to specification of the spike inflorescence shape. This meristem identity pathway has conceptual implications for both inflorescence evolution and molecular breeding in Triticeae.

Antibacterial and antitumor activity of the species Prunella vulgaris L.

Abstract Background: Prunella vulgaris L., known as self-healing herb, is a widely spread species in the spontaneous flora with beneficial effects on human health, a fact proven in particular by Asian researchers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antitumor activity and the antibacterial effect on different bacterial strains, including multidrug-resistant ones, depending on the type of solvent used (aqueous, hydroalcoholic), the plant product taken into consideration (spike inflorescence, leaf), its quantity and the concentration of active principles. Material and method: For screening of antimicrobial susceptibility, both minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration were determined on Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia stuartii, Pseudomonas aeruginosai, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus species, including reference strains and hospital strains. Leaves and flower extracts (aqueous and 70% methanolic) were first assessed, and the one with the best antibacterial potential was further tested as a concentrated extract. The antitumor activity was determined on MDA-MB-231 breast adenocarcinoma cells and on a non-tumor cell line, MCF-10A breast epithelial cells by means of Alamar blue technique and Scratch assay. Results: Inflorescence extracts showed better bacteriostatic effects than leaf extracts on most bacteria, in both aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts. The concentrated extract of spike inflorescence showed measurable activity with good effects on Gram-positive bacteria, but also on multidrug-resistant Gram-negative ones. The 70% methanolic extract of the species Prunella vulgaris L. (spike inflorescence) demonstrated a concentration-dependent cytotoxic and anti-migratory activity on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, while affecting the non-tumor cell line less. Conclusions: The results suggest that Prunella vulgaris extracts present antibacterial potential in the complementary treatment of multidrug-resistant infections. The extract from the spike inflorescence of Prunella vulgaris L. produced a dose and time-dependent reduction in cell viability and migration, eliciting a stronger effect on the breast adenocarcinoma cell line.

Phytochemical Characterization of Transilvanian Prunella vulgaris

Abstract Prunella vulgaris L. grows in spontaneous flora of Romania in wet places, fields, meadows, unpopulated areas, both in the sun and in the shade. The plant is rich in phenolic acids (caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid), pentacyclic triterpenic compounds (ursolic, oleanolic, betulinic acid) and flavonoids (rutoside, quercetin). Prunella vulgaris L. has shown numerous pharmacological actions: antioxidant, anti-allergic, antimicrobial, immunostimulatory activities. The aim of the study was to evaluate the phytochemical and pharmacological profile of the leaves and spike inflorescence of Prunella vulgaris L. collected from Romania. The polyphenol content in leaves was found to be 63.78 ± 2.01 mg GAE/g dry weight in the methanolic extract and 45.73 ± 13.87 mg GAE/g in the aqueous extract. In the spike inflorescence, total polyphenol content was 36.44 ± 6.73 mg GAE/g in the methanolic extract and 26.49 ± 2.97 mg GAE/g in the aqueous extract. The results from the antioxidant assays (DPPH and ABTS) were not significantly different between the two herbal drugs. Further studies are needed in order to quantify the active compounds.

Typification of the name Stachys recta subsp. tenoreana (Lamiaceae)

Stachys Linnaeus (1753: 580) (Lamiaceae) is a genus composed by annual/perennial herbs and small shrubs, with sessile or short-stalked flowers arranged in axillary clusters on the upper part of the stem forming raceme or spike inflorescences, and very variable calyx that represents an important trait for systematics. It is a subcosmopolitan genus, which includes approximately 370 species (Harley et al. 2004), mainly distributed in the Mediterranean and South-West Asia warm temperate regions.

A New Species and a New Record of Varronia (Cordiaceae) from Brazil

Abstract—Herein a new species, Varronia xinguana, is described and illustrated. In addition, Varronia polystachya, a species previously known only from Venezuela, is reported for the first time for Brazil. Both species are restricted to the phytogeographic domain of Amazonia, northern Brazil. A distribution map and a conservation assessment are provided. An identification key is also provided for the species of Varronia with spike inflorescence from Northern of Brazil.

Postharvest physiology and handling of cut Spartium junceum inflorescences

Spartium junceum is a deciduous perennial shrub with extreme resistance to drought that develops spike inflorescences with yellow, delicate, lightly scented flowers. In series of experiments, we investigated S. junceum postharvest performance and recorded various quality parameters. Harvesting S. junceum inflorescences at different developmental stages did not affect vase life (VL) or inflorescence fresh weight. However, significant differences between harvest stages were recorded on flower open rate (FOR; %) and flower fall rate (FFR; %). Sucrose pulsing at 2 and 5% (w:v) for 24 h resulted in significant increases in FOR, but no changes in FFR, inflorescence fresh weigh and solution uptake (SU) were recorded. Wet storage at 3 °C effectively increased VL and maintained quality of inflorescences for over 40 days. S. junceum showed a moderate sensitivity to exogenous ethylene. Exposure of inflorescences to 5 and 10 μL L−1 for 12 h resulted in significant decrease in VL and FOR, and also increase in FFR. 1-MCP treatments at 10 μL L−1 significantly increased VL by 2.2 d, FOR by up to 90% and maintained higher inflorescence fresh weight (P < 0.05) for 5 d (e.g. from day-3 to day-8), compared to the un-treated controls. The results of the present study suggest that S. junceum could, potentially, be cultivated commercially for specialty cut flower production.

Pharmacognostic, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review of “Phog”- Calligonum polygonoides L.

Calligonum polygonoides (Phog) belongs to family Polygonaceae. It is a geographically widely distributed shrub seen from the arctic to the tropics. This endangered plant (included in Red data book of IUCN) is morphologically having stem with nodes and internodes, white flowers in spike inflorescence and needle like leaves. It is traditionally used to stabilize sand dunes, as fuel, and in treatment of heat-stroke by mixing with curd or “Rayata”. It is also reported as antidote for opium poisoning. Various phyto-chemicals present include butanolides- calligonolides A and B, various flavanoids like kaempferol, quercetin and their derivatives. Various steroidal compounds are reported in roots. Pharmacologicallly, its cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal and biosorbent potentials are reported by various researchers. Therefore, an attempt has been made to accumulate properties of this potential herb.&#x0D; Keywords: Calligonum, Phog, biosorbent, heat-stroke, calligonolides, kaempferol

Developmental pathways for shaping spike inflorescence architecture in barley and wheat.

Grass species display a wide array of inflorescences ranging from highly branched compound/panicle inflorescences to unbranched spike inflorescences. The unbranched spike is a characteristic feature of the species of tribe Triticeae, including economically important crops, such as wheat and barley. In this review, we describe two important developmental genetic mechanisms regulating spike inflorescence architecture in barley and wheat. These include genetic regulation of (i) row-type pathway specific to Hordeum species and (ii) unbranched spike development in barley and wheat. For a comparative understanding, we describe the branched inflorescence phenotypes of rice and maize along with unbranched Triticeae inflorescences. In the end, we propose a simplified model describing a probable mechanism leading to unbranched spike formation in Triticeae species.

SYSTEMATICAL COMPARATIVE FOR TWO SPECIES AMARANTHUS albus L. AND AMARANTHUS gracilis DEFS. (AMARANTHACEAE) IN IRAQ

This study dealt with comparative taxonomic study for the two species Amarantus albus L. and Amaranthus gracilis Defs. in Iraq . It was included the important morphological characters for roots, stems, leaves ,petioles ,inflorescences and its parts ,floral parts ,fruits and seeds . Also the dimensions and properties of each part have been recorded ,even its colors which helps in isolated and diagnosed the two species, the first one recognized by its white stems while the other one had red stems, also the first species characterized by axillaries sessile inflorescences with so small florets while the other one had terminal clusters spike inflorescence . Stamens were three in first species with short filament while they were 2-3 stamens with long filament in the other one. Also the study determined the rat of the flowering period for the two species as well as the study of ecological and geographical distribution for the two species in Iraq, the results documented with pictures. It could be depended to studied traits of the plant species for classification.

Change of floral orientation within an inflorescence affects pollinator behavior and pollination efficiency in a bee-pollinated plant, Corydalis sheareri.

Vertical raceme or spike inflorescences that are bee-pollinated tend to present their flowers horizontally. Horizontal presentation of flowers is hypothesized to enhance pollinator recognition and pollination precision, and it may also ensure greater consistency of pollinator movement on inflorescences. We tested the hypotheses using bee-pollinated Corydalis sheareri which has erect inflorescences consisting of flowers with horizontal orientation. We altered the orientation of individual flowers and prepared three types of inflorescences: (i) unmanipulated inflorescences with horizontal-facing flowers, (ii) inflorescences with flowers turned upward, and (iii) inflorescences with flowers turned downward. We compared number of inflorescences approached and visited, number of successive probes within an inflorescence, the direction percentage of vertical movement on inflorescences, efficiency of pollen removal and seed production per inflorescence. Deviation from horizontal orientation decreased both approaches and visits by leafcutter bees and bumble bees to inflorescences. Changes in floral orientation increased the proportion of downward movements by leafcutter bees and decreased the consistency of pollinator movement on inflorescences. In addition, pollen removal per visit and seed production per inflorescence also declined with changes of floral orientation. In conclusion, floral orientation seems more or less optimal as regards bee behavior and pollen transfer for Corydalis sheareri. A horizontal orientation may be under selection of pollinators and co-adapt with other aspects of the inflorescence and floral traits.

좀목포사초(Carex kamagariensis K. Okamoto)의 분포

ABSTRACT: Carex kamagariensis K. Okamoto was found in throughout the nation. This species is distinguishedfrom other related taxa in Carex sect. Mitratae by pistillate scales with a long arista and achenes constrictedabove in the middle. A new Korean name, ‘Jom-mok-po-sa-cho’, is based on its small size and floral charactersimilarity to C. genkaiensis. In this study, a description, illustrations and habitat photos of the species are pro-vided. The key of its related species is also provided. Keywords: Carex kamagariensis , Carex sect. Mitratae, Cyperaceae 적요: 국내에알려지지않은 사초속청사초절에 속하는 식물인 좀목포사초(Carex kamagariensis K. Okamoto)가 우리나라 전국에 넓게 분포하는 것으로 확인되었다. 분류학적 근연군과는 자인편 까락이 길고 과낭 중앙부가 오목한 특징에 의해 구별된다. 국명은 형태적 특성을 고려하여 좀목포사초로 신칭하였고, 형태적 특징과 도해 및 생태사진을 제시하였다. 주요어: 좀목포사초, 사초속, 청사초절, 사초과Genus Carex L. is the biggest group in Caricoideae ofCyperaceae with more than 2,000 species world-wide (Ohwi,1965; Reznicek, 1990). The genus is mainly distributed in thetemperate climate area of Asia and North America and rarelyfound from lowlands of the tropical climate including Africa(Koyama, 1961; Ohwi, 1965; Reznicek, 1990).Carex sect. Mitratae Kuk. is easily distinguished by its morethan 2 spike inflorescences, 3 stigmas, extended appendagesfrom stylopodiums (Kukenthal, 1909; Akiyama, 1932; Koyama,1961; Egorova, 1999; Katsuyama, 2005; Dai et al., 2010).Carex kamagariensis K. Okamoto is known to be distributedin Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu area of Japan (Katsuyama,2005; Hoshino et al., 2011). Katsuyama (2005) and Hoshinoet al. (2011) mentioned that C. kamagariensis was distributedin the southern area of Korea. However, this species has notbeen reported in Korean domestic bibliography (Lee, 1980;Lee, 1996; Oh, 2006). This study reports distribution status ofC. kamagariensis in Korea based on the herbarium specimenscollected throughout the country, and a description, anillustration, and habitat information of the species are providedin this report.Carex kamagariensis K. Okamoto, Bull. Okayama Coll.Sci. 1: 66 (1965).Type: Japan, Honshu, Hiroshima Pref., Aki-gun, Kamagari-cho (Apr. 28, 1961, Okamoto no. 934)Herbs perennial, basal sheath fibrous, culms densely*Author for correspondence: ymlee99@forest.go.krhttp://www.pltaxa.or.krCopyright © 2012 the Korean Society of Plant Taxonomists

Seed biomass production and germination rates of Cyperus entrerianus1

Abstract Cyperus entrerianus (Boeckler) (deeprooted sedge, deeproot sedge, woodrush flatsedge) has become naturalized throughout the Texas coastal prairie ecoregion and is now found throughout much of the southeastern United States. Originally from Argentina, its successful naturalization is linked to its rapid growth, morphological plasticity, and generalized habitat requirements, but little work has focused upon its seed biology or ecology. Research was conducted to quantify phytomorphological variability, develop seed yield prediction models, and quantify germination requirements for C. entrerianus to aid in future control and management efforts of this exotic invasive sedge, particularly those focused upon seedbanks. Cyperus entrerianus phytomorphology, seed production, and seed germination were extremely variable among study areas, and provide evidence for its successful naturalization. Although plants varied morphologically, spike cluster area and inflorescence diameter explained much of the variati...