Sperm Flagellum Length Research Articles

Sexual selection and the evolution of sperm morphology in sharks.

Post-copulatory sexual selection, and sperm competition in particular, is a powerful selective force shaping the evolution of sperm morphology. Although mounting evidence suggests that post-copulatory sexual selection influences the evolution of sperm morphology among species, recent evidence also suggests that sperm competition influences variation in sperm morphology at the intraspecific level. However, contradictory empirical results and limited taxonomic scope have led to difficulty in assessing the generality of sperm morphological responses to variation in the strength of sperm competition. Here, we use phylogenetically controlled analyses to explore the effects of sperm competition on sperm morphology and variance in sharks, a basal vertebrate group characterized by wide variation in rates of multiple mating by females, and consequently sperm competition risk. Our analyses reveal that shark species experiencing greater levels of sperm competition produce sperm with longer flagella and that sperm flagellum length is less variable in species under higher sperm competition risk. In contrast, neither the length of the sperm head and midpiece nor variation in sperm head and midpiece length was associated with sperm competition risk. Our findings demonstrate that selection influences both the inter- and intraspecific variation in sperm morphology and suggest that the flagellum is an important target of sexual selection in sharks. These findings provide important insight into patterns of selection on the ejaculate in a basal vertebrate lineage.

Variation in sperm morphometry of the African cyprinid Barbus neumayeri (Neumayer’s barb)

In this study, we explored variation in sperm morphometry of the African cyprinid Barbus neumayeri Fischer, 1884 (Neumayer’s barb) across seven sites with a wide range in dissolved oxygen, from hypoxic swamps to intermittent normoxic streams to well-oxygenated rivers. We explore whether fish physiological condition (K) or hypoxia can affect the reproductive traits, and whether condition–hypoxia dependence of sperm traits including head length (LH), head width (WH), flagellum length (LF), and hydrodynamic ratio (HR) vary across sampling sites. Significant differences were found in fish total length (P = 0.0212), as well as in K, left and right testis masses, total gonad mass, and gonadosomatic index (P < 0.0001 for all traits). Total gonad mass was lower in hypoxic sites than in well-oxygenated sites. Interestingly, the left and right testes from normoxic environments were double the size of testes from hypoxic environments. Despite little variation in sperm flagellum length, sperm heads were longer in swamps than in streams or rivers, giving the sperm head a more hydrodynamic shape. This variation in HR may be beneficial in the more stagnant waters of the swamp compared with the other environments. Future studies are necessary to understand whether variation in sperm morphology correlates with sperm swimming performance and male reproductive capacity.

Reduced sperm performance in backcross hybrids between species pairs of whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)

Previous work has demonstrated that genomic incompatibilities work together with ecologically divergent selection to promote and maintain reproductive isolation between incipient species (dwarf and normal) of lake whitefish ( Coregonus clupeaformis (Mitchill, 1818)). Whitefish spawn in groups with external fertilization, which creates conditions for strong sperm competition. In this study, we asked whether reduced sperm performance in hybrids from whitefish species-pair matings might contribute to postzygotic isolating mechanisms between these taxa. We examined two sperm traits, sperm swimming speed and flagellum length, in pure dwarf and normal whitefish and in their F1 and backcross hybrids. We observed significantly reduced sperm swimming speed in backcross but not in F1 hybrids. Sperm flagellum length was not significantly correlated with sperm swimming speed. These results demonstrate that F1 hybrids formed in nature should be capable of the same fertilization success as the parental species during sperm competition, everything else being equal. However, reduced sperm performance in the backcross generation is consistent with other evidence suggesting that genomic incompatibilities create a range of negative fitness effects in post-F1 whitefish hybrids and provides evidence for an additional postzygotic isolation mechanism involved in the incipient speciation of sympatric dwarf and normal whitefish.

The relative sensitivity of sperm, eggs and embryos to copper in the blue mussel ( Mytilus trossulus)

Copper, an essential element, is toxic at elevated concentrations, and as a result of anthropogenic activities is becoming increasingly prevalent in marine environments. In this study, we examined the effects of copper on early life stages of the blue mussel, Mytilus trossulus. We assessed the impacts of increasing copper concentrations on embryo development, egg viability, sperm fertilization capacity and, in particular, on sperm swimming speed using computer-assisted sperm analysis. Sensitivity to copper followed the pattern: embryos > sperm > eggs. A dramatic increase in abnormal embryo development was observed following exposure to copper concentrations exceeding 10 μg/L. Sperm swimming speeds decreased significantly when exposed to 100 μg/L of copper, but lower doses did not influence sperm swimming speed. Copper exposure (at any tested concentration) did not affect sperm flagellum length, or alter egg viability. Based on our results, we suggest that exposure of sperm to copper may interfere with mitochondrial activity, which reduces sperm swimming speed during the extended duration of sperm motility in blue mussel.

Sperm competition in a fish with external fertilization: the contribution of sperm number, speed and length

The role of sperm number and quality in male competitiveness was investigated using in vitro fertilization experiments with bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Bluegill males use one of three mating tactics: 'sneakers', which streak spawn; 'satellites', which mimic females; and 'parentals', which are territorial. The in vitro experiments mimicked natural spawning by incorporating these males' mean proximity to eggs and timing of sperm release. Using a maximum-likelihood algorithm, raffle equations were fit to paternity data, which revealed a strong effect of sperm number on male competitiveness. There was no difference in sperm flagellum length, curvilinear swim speed or path linearity among the three male mating types, and these traits did not explain any additional variation in male competitiveness. It was estimated that, given closer proximity to eggs, satellites need release only 0.34 times as many sperm as parentals to obtain equal paternity. Despite being farther from the eggs and releasing sperm about half a second after parentals, sneakers need only release 0.58 times as many sperm as parentals to obtain equal paternity. Thus, the increased competitiveness of sneakers' sperm must come from a component of sperm quality other than speed or length.

Sperm characteristics in perch Perca fluviatilis L.

Sperm densities in perch Perca fluviatilis males showed a positive correlation with the amount of stripped milt. Sperm flagellum length did not correlate with body mass, but a significant correlation between flagellum length and the total number of sperm produced was found.