Tarsius Spectrum Research Articles

The effect of artificial light at night on a nocturnalprimate.

Anthropogenic disturbance is a major threat to biodiversity. An anthropogenic disturbance that is rarely addressed for nonhuman primates is the effect of artificial light at night (ALAN) which is defined by the spread of artificial lighting at night which eliminates natural darkness. Artificial light at night can result from streetlights, or indirectly from sky glow (artificial light that is scattered and reflected back to earth by the atmosphere). Research has demonstrated that artificial lighting causes changes in animal behavior, reproductive success, survivorship, as well as can alter the composition of the communities. The goal of this paper is to explore how the behavior of spectral tarsiers, Tarsius spectrumgurskyae, is modified in response to artificial light. We conducted this study at Tangkoko Nature Reserve on the easternmost tip of the northern arm of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The results of this study suggest that in response to artificial light tarsiers increase their time spent travelling and foraging, left their sleeping sites earlier and returned to them later thereby extending their daily activity time. The tarsiers also left their sleeping trees at lower heights, gave fewer vocalizations and fewer alarm calls each night in response to the additional artificial light. The tarsier's lengthened night might be leading to a change in interspecific competition for food as well as increase the ability of potential predators to locate the tarsiers. Additional research on the effect of ALAN on primates is clearly needed.

Studi penyebaran populasi dan daya dukung habitat Kuskus Beruang (Ailurops ursinus) di Pulau Manado Tua Sulawesi Utara

STUDY OF SPREADING POPULATION AND HABITAT CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE SULAWESI BEAR CUSCUS (Ailurops ursinus) AT MANADO TUA ISLAND OF NORTH SULAWESI. Manado Tua Island is still keeping the endemic Sulawesi bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus), dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis), black macaque (Macaca nigra), tarsius (Tarsius spectrum) as well as some kinds of plant biodiversity including forest galangal (Alpina sp.) and forest pandanus (Pandanus sp.), all should be protected intensively. Objective of this study was to evaluate spreading population and habitat carrying capacity of bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus) at the Island of Manado Tua I and II, to be used for recommendation package of conservation model on the base of administrative condition of Manado governmental areas. The Variables observed in this study were population density of bear cuscus and dwarf cuscus as well as their habitat carrying capacity of plant vegetation including categories of try, bush, thicket and seedling levels. Data of wild animals were found by Line Transect Method. Plant vegetations were calculated based on the important index values of each category level. Result showed that Manado Tua I Island was inhabited by dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis) of about 295 heads and bear cuscus (Ailurops Ursinus) of about 49 heads. Manado Tua II Island was inhabited by dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis) of about 305 heads and bear cuscus (Ailurops Ursinus) of about 57 heads. Habitat carrying capacity of try vegetation level of the important index values was about 298,65% and seedling vegetation level of about 300,68%. These mean that carrying capacity was supporting the conservation for both kinds of cuscus in Manado Tua Island. These population of the endemic wild animals in Manado Tua I dan II Islands should be protected as their habitat area was degrading due to uncontrol illegal logging and hunting by local community.Keywords: habitat carrying capacity, dwarf cuscus, bear cuscus

Identifying genetic relationships among tarsier populations in the islands of Bunaken National Park and mainland Sulawesi.

Eastern tarsiers (Tarsius tarsier complex) are small nocturnal primates endemic to Sulawesi Island and small adjacent islands of Indonesia. In 2004, the hybrid biogeography hypothesis predicted this species complex might contain 16 or more taxa, each corresponding to a region of endemism, based on: 1) geological evidence of the development of the archipelago, 2) biological evidence in the form of concordant distributions of monkeys and toads, and 3) the distribution of tarsier acoustic groups. Since then, 11 tarsier species have been recognized, potentially leaving more to be described. Efforts to identify these cryptic species are urgently needed so that habitat conversion, pet trade, and cultural activities will not render some species extinct before they are recognized. We gathered data to test the hypothesis of cryptic tarsier species on three volcanic islands in Bunaken National Park, North Sulawesi, namely Bunaken, Manadotua, and Mantehage, during May-August 2018. We sequenced individuals at 5 nuclear genes (ABCA1, ADORA3, AXIN1, RAG, and TTR) and made comparisons to existing genotypes at 14 mainland sites. Bayesian phylogenetic analyses revealed that island populations are genetically identical in all 5 genes, and formed a clade separated from the mainland ones. The eastern tarsiers first diverged from the western tarsiers approximately 2.5 MYA. The three island populations diverged from mainland tarsiers approximately 2,000–150,000 YA, due to either human activities or natural rafting. This study provides information for tarsier conservation, advances the understanding of biogeography of Sulawesi, and contributes to Indonesian awareness of biodiversity. Further quantitative genetics research on tarsiers, especially the island populations, will offer significant insights to establish more efficient and strategic tarsier conservation actions.

Echolocation in a Nocturnal Primate?

Recently it has been noted that Gursky’s spectral tarsier emits ultrasonic calls. Because high-frequency sounds are capable of travelling only short distances, their function is limited by the distance the sound can be discerned. One possible function for these short-distance, high-frequency sounds is that they might be used by the tarsiers to navigate throughout their environment. I conducted this study at Tangkoko Nature Reserve in Sulawesi, Indonesia, from May to August 2017. Using the focal follows, I recorded the start of each locomotor activity to the nearest second. I also simultaneously recorded all ultrasonic vocalisations that the focal individual emitted using a Wildlife Acoustics Ultrasonic Song Meter BAT3. Approximately 42% of the ultrasonic calls that I recorded during this study were given within 1 s prior to engaging in locomotor activity. The tarsiers gave statistically more ultrasonic calls during locomotion than during other behaviours (rest, forage and social). Four types of ultrasonic calls were given while locomoting: whistles, doubles, trills and frequency-modulated calls. Of these, the trill and the frequency-modulated call were only given during locomotion, and trills were only given prior to leaping. These results preliminarily suggest that the tarsiers do use ultrasonic calls for navigation. Studying echolocation in organisms closely related to bats is critical for understanding the evolution of echolocation.

Vocal individuality and rhythm in male and female duet contributions of a nonhuman primate.

Duetting, or the stereotypical, repeated and often coordinated vocalizations between 2 individuals arose independently multiple times in the Order Primates. Across primate species, there exists substantial variation in terms of timing, degree of overlap, and sex-specificity of duet contributions. There is increasing evidence that primates can modify the timing of their duet contributions relative to their partner, and this vocal flexibility may have been an important precursor to the evolution of human language. Here, we present the results of a fine-scale analysis of Gursky’s spectral tarsier Tarsius spectrumgurskyae duet phrases recorded in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Specifically, we aimed to investigate individual-level variation in the female and male contributions to the duet, quantify individual- and pair-level differences in duet timing, and measure temporal precision of duetting individuals relative to their partner. We were able to classify female duet phrases to the correct individual with an 80% accuracy using support vector machines, whereas our classification accuracy for males was lower at 64%. Females were more variable than males in terms of timing between notes. All tarsier phrases exhibited some degree of overlap between callers, and tarsiers exhibited high temporal precision in their note output relative to their partners. We provide evidence that duetting tarsier individuals can modify their note output relative to their duetting partner, and these results support the idea that flexibility in vocal exchanges—a precursor to human language—evolved early in the primate lineage and long before the emergence of modern humans.

Assessing female reproductive status of spectral tarsier (Tarsius tarsier) using fecal steroid hormone metabolite analysis.

The wild population of spectral tarsier is declining and attempts to breed the species in captivity have been of limited success. One possible reason for this is that information on the reproductive biology of Tarsius tarsier is extremely limited and data on the species reproductive physiology are completely lacking. We validated fecal estrogen (E-total) and progesterone metabolite (5-P-3OH) measurements for monitoring female ovarian activity and pregnancy. We used this approach to provide the first data on cycle and pregnancy length based on endocrine information in this species. We collected regular fecal samples in combination with observations on socio-sexual behaviors for a maximum of 15 months from three females maintained at Primate Research Center of Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia. Hormonal profiles indicated that behavioral estrus was associated with marked elevations in fecal E-total concentrations followed by increases in 5-P-3OH levels indicating luteal function. Pregnancy was characterized by low levels of E-total and 5-P-3OH during the first month and markedly rising concentrations thereafter. An ovarian cycle length of 21.7 ± 5.7 days was found. Gestation length was 128d (live infant), 131d (stillbirth), and 164d (death of mother and infant due to dystocia). Despite the small sample size, the study demonstrates the overall validity of fecal sex hormone metabolite measurements for reproductive monitoring in female T. tarsier, as such, the methods described here may ultimately help to improve the breeding management of the species in captivity. They may also offer new opportunities for investigating basic questions of tarsier reproductive biology in the wild by using fecal hormone metabolite analysis to diagnose pregnant animals and determine reproductive rates in relation to ecological and other factors influencing tarsier reproduction. Thus, non-invasive assessment of female reproductive condition as described here may ultimately contribute to facilitate in and ex situ conservation efforts of this endangered primate species.

Sexual Behaviour of the Spectral Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum) in Captivity

Tarsius spectrum is a primate species endemic to Sulawesi. Populations of the species have decreased due to habitat destruction and hunting. The sexual behaviour of T. bancanus and T. syrichta are known, but that of T. spectrum has not been reported until recently. The aim of this research was to study the sexual behaviour of T. spectrum in captivity. We observed 3 pairs of T. spectrum at the captive breeding facility of the IPB Primate Research Centre for 9 months using focal animal sampling. We showed that principal courtship behaviours were scent marking (36.7%) and genital marking for females (16.2%) and genital inspection for males (16.0%). Copulations lasted between 3 and 4 min, starting with the male mounting the female and thrusting quickly as many as 168–236 times followed by slow thrusting 9–20 times. When slow thrusting occurred, females vocalized up to 6 times. At the end of the copulation sequence, males remained motionless with their penis inserted within the female’s genitalia for about 31 s. Copulation occurred only once for each pair during the observation period. Our results should be useful to support breeding programmes and conservation actions for tarsiers.

DAMPAK PENGEMBANGAN PROGRAM EKOWISATA BERBASIS SATWA ENDEMIK DI TANGKOKO BITUNG

THE IMPACT OF ENDEMIC ECOTOURISM PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT BASED ON TANGKOKO NATURE RESERVE OF BITUNG. Tangkoko National Reserve is one of the nature reserves located in Bitung regency of North Sulawesi. The reserve covers an area of 8,745 hectares. There is abundant biodiversity such as various types of protected flora and fauna can be found in the reserve. Among them there are endemic wildlifes such as Sulawesi Macaque (Macaca nigra), Tarsiers (Tarsius spectrum), the Sulawesi bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus), and Hornbill (Rhyticeros cassidix). Here is where the tourists can enjoy the beauty of the reserve or seen firsthand the wealthy of nature in such a protected forest, where the forest has potential as anecotourism spot. Tourism industry has an important role in the development efforts and the development of the region where the tourism spot located.Even in some areas show that tourism industry is able to develop the region as well as create a main income source. The present study was conducted to elaborate the impacts of endemic ecotourism program development basedon the development of Tangkoko nature reserve of Bitung. The study was conducted from November 2016 to January 2017. The ellaboration of the study was focused on the impact of ecotourism developmentonthe existing endemic Sulawesi Black Monkeys and Tarsiers. Survey method was employed to collect and analyze various data and information on endemic fauna of Sulawesi Black Monkeys and Tarsiers. The primary data was obtained through direct interviews with various communities around nature reserve area, and secondary data was obtained from related government sources in Bitung regency.Variables observed were:1) vegetation, 2) the existing wildlife conditions, 3) community income, and 4) the income of the region of Bitung regency.Based on results and discussion, it can be concluded that ecotourism is the best program to be implemented as it could give positive impact towards conservation efforts,increase community's income, and regional income.Keywords: Tangkoko reserve, Ecotourism, Endemic Fauna.

E-Learning Application of Tarsier with Virtual Reality using Android Platform

Spectral Tarsier is a primitive primate that can only be found in the province of North Sulawesi. To study these primates can be used an e-learning application with Augmented Reality technology that uses a marker to confronted the camera computer to interact with three dimensions Tarsier object. But that application only shows tarsier object in three dimensions without habitat and requires a lot of resources because it runs on a Personal Computer. The same technology can be shown three dimensions’ objects is Virtual Reality to excess can make the user like venturing into the virtual world with Android platform that requires fewer resources. So, put on Virtual Reality technology using the Android platform that can make users not only to view and interact with the tarsiers but also the habitat. The results of this research indicate that the user can learn the Tarsier and habitat with good. Thus, the use of Virtual Reality technology in the e-learning application of tarsiers can help people to see, know, and learn about Spectral Tarsier.

Ultrasonic Vocalizations by the Spectral Tarsier, Tarsius spectrum

Although the vocalizations of spectral tarsiers have been studied for over 3 decades by numerous primatologists, the data in this paper represent the first evidence that this species communicates in the ultrasonic range. In addition, this paper characterizes the types of ultrasonic vocalizations by spectral tarsiers, Tarsius spectrum. Data were collected at Tangkoko Nature Reserve in Sulawesi, Indonesia, from January through April 2013. Recordings were made on a Wildlife Acoustics Ultrasonic Song Meter BAT2 from 10 groups of varying sizes and compositions. The ultrasonic recorder was placed at the base of the group's sleeping tree and recorded from 5.00 to 7.00 h using an omnidirectional microphone. The ultrasonic vocalizations fell into 5 main categories: chirps, twitters, choruses, doubles and whistles. Chirps were the most frequent ultrasonic vocalizations, followed by twitters, choruses, doubles and then whistles. While chirps, twitters and choruses extended from the audible to the ultrasonic range, the doubles and whistles were pure ultrasound. Currently, the function of these ultrasonic vocalizations is not yet clear and requires additional research.

Using geographic profiling to locate elusive nocturnal animals: a case study with spectral tarsiers

AbstractEstimates of biodiversity, population size, population density and habitat use have important implications for management of both species and habitats, yet are based on census data that can be extremely difficult to collect. Traditional assessment techniques are often limited by time and money and by the difficulties of working in certain habitats, and species become more difficult to find as population size decreases. Particular difficulties arise when studying elusive species with cryptic behaviours. Here, we show how geographic profiling (GP) – a statistical tool originally developed in criminology to prioritize large lists of suspects in cases of serial crime – can be used to address these problems. We ask whether GP can be used to locate sleeping sites of spectral tarsiers Tarsius tarsier in Sulawesi, Southeast Asia, using as input the positions at which tarsier vocalizations were recorded in the field. This novel application of GP is potentially of value as tarsiers are cryptic and nocturnal and can easily be overlooked in habitat assessments (e.g. in dense rainforest). Our results show that GP provides a useful tool for locating sleeping sites of this species, and indeed analysis of a preliminary dataset during field work strongly suggested the presence of a sleeping tree at a previously unknown location; two sleeping trees were subsequently found within 5 m of the predicted site. We believe that GP can be successfully applied to locating the nests, dens or roosts of elusive animals such as tarsiers, potentially improving estimates of population size with important implications for management of both species and habitats.

DESKRIPSI TINGKAH LAKU TANGKASI ( Tarsius Spectrum ) SAAT MEMASUKI DI LUBANG SARANG POHON DI CAGAR ALAM TANGKOKO

ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION OF TANGKASI BEHAVIOR (Tarsius Spectrum) WHEN ENTERING THE HOLE NEST TREE IN TANGKOKO NATURE RESERVE. Tarsier in Tangkoko Nature Reserve Batuangus many inhabit cavities in trees or root piles. Tarsier nest is a place that is safe from predators. This study aims to obtain data regarding some behavior that appears when Tarsier Tarsius activity around the nest tree at Tangkoko Nature Reserve. To determine the percentage of respective behavior that tarsiers in the show in the morning, afternoon and evening. The variables measured were some behaviors that arise between them. Grooming behavior, resting behavior, seeking shelter behavior, play behavior, data were analyzed and presented in a descriptive, which describes and explains the general description of the results of direct observations, the results showed that more Tangkasi doing grooming on morning with a percentage of 37.15%. during the day with a percentage of 31.19% early evening with a percentage of 31.19%. Tangkasi resting behavior is most prevalent during the day ie 38.70%. At night with a percentage of 32.25%, in the afternoon with 29.03% percentage. Sheltering behavior more activity in the morning with a percentage of 38.07% and the time of day with the percentage of 33.02%. While in the afternoon with a percentage of 28.89% behavior played almost evenly in each time. On the morning after finished foraging Tangkasi playing with percentage of 30, 18%, and the percentage of time during the day with 32.88% and a maximum in the late afternoon with a percentage of 37.38%. Keywords: Behavior Tangkasi (Tarsius spectrum)

Density of Tangkasi (Tarsius spectrum) Population and Development of Population Estimation Method Based on Duet Call at Tangkoko-Batuangus Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi

<em>Tarsius spectrum</em> is an endemic primate of Sulawesi. This primate is categorized into lower risk and recommended as vulnerable and protected species. They have a small round body with nocturnal activity. The research was conducted on primary forest of Tangkoko-Batuangus Nature Reserve (TBNR) in North Sulawesi, 1°30’-1°34’N and 125°10’-125°81’E, in May 2011-August 2012. This research was aimed to know tarsiers’ population density by census and estimation methods. A 121 of 100 m²-sized plot was used for population census. Distance of plots was 100 m each and 16-circle plots (r = 100 m) were used for population estimation. Distance between central point plots was 200 m. There were 57 duet call locations inhabited by 229 animals. The population density was 47 groups/km², consisted of 209 adults, 11 sub-adults and 9 infants. Population density was 189 animals/km². The individual in each group was 4.01±1.83 with modus 4. This research showed that population density has increased since 1997. Estimated total of tarsiers in this area (121 ha) were 251.55 animals. This result is 9.6% higher than census. If sampling estimation method will be applied, it should be corrected by multiplying with 91% (ratio of 229 animals censused to 251 animals sampled).

Inferred L/M cone opsin polymorphism of ancestral tarsiers sheds dim light on the origin of anthropoid primates

Tarsiers are small nocturnal primates with a long history of fuelling debate on the origin and evolution of anthropoid primates. Recently, the discovery of M and L opsin genes in two sister species, Tarsius bancanus (Bornean tarsier) and Tarsius syrichta (Philippine tarsier), respectively, was interpreted as evidence of an ancestral long-to-middle (L/M) opsin polymorphism, which, in turn, suggested a diurnal or cathemeral (arrhythmic) activity pattern. This view is compatible with the hypothesis that stem tarsiers were diurnal; however, a reversion to nocturnality during the Middle Eocene, as evidenced by hyper-enlarged orbits, predates the divergence of T. bancanus and T. syrichta in the Late Miocene. Taken together, these findings suggest that some nocturnal tarsiers possessed high-acuity trichromatic vision, a concept that challenges prevailing views on the adaptive origins of the anthropoid visual system. It is, therefore, important to explore the plausibility and antiquity of trichromatic vision in the genus Tarsius. Here, we show that Sulawesi tarsiers (Tarsius tarsier), a phylogenetic out-group of Philippine and Bornean tarsiers, have an L opsin gene that is more similar to the L opsin gene of T. syrichta than to the M opsin gene of T. bancanus in non-synonymous nucleotide sequence. This result suggests that an L/M opsin polymorphism is the ancestral character state of crown tarsiers and raises the possibility that many hallmarks of the anthropoid visual system evolved under dim (mesopic) light conditions. This interpretation challenges the persistent nocturnal-diurnal dichotomy that has long informed debate on the origin of anthropoid primates.

Infanticide by a male spectral tarsier (Tarsius spectrum)

As part of a long-term field study on the behavioral ecology and conservation of a population of spectral tarsiers (Tarsius spectrum) in Tangkoko Nature Reserve, Sulawesi, Indonesia, I observed the first known instance of infanticide in this species. A young infant was killed by a neighboring male. Neither the epiphenomenal aggression hypothesis, social pathology hypothesis, nutritive benefits of cannibalism hypothesis, nor sexual selection hypothesis are supported by this observation. The only hypothesis that could not be rejected outright, on the basis of this single observation, was the competition for limited resources hypothesis.

Molecular Phylogenetics and Chronometrics of Tarsiidae Based on 12S mtDNA Haplotypes: Evidence for Miocene Origins of Crown Tarsiers and Numerous Species within the Sulawesian Clade

We report new mitochondrial DNA sequence data from tarsiers sampled from several populations, including the extreme northeast and southwest of the range of the Tarsius tarsier species complex, the most extensive sampling ever reported for this taxon. Our results provide the opportunity to produce the first ever molecular chronometric analysis of Tarsiidae. These results date the age of crown tarsiers, minimally, to the middle Miocene, and each of the 3 tarsier species groups, Tarsius bancanus, T. syrichta, and the T. tarsier complex, to the early or middle Miocene. Thus, each of these 3 species has evolved in isolation for a period of time that is consistent with that which would be expected for multiple speciation events. Our analysis of the Tarsius tarsier complex reveals 5 subclades, each of which is interpreted to represent a haplogroup at, or above, the species level, a result that is consistent with current hypotheses about numerous cryptic species within this species complex. The implications for conservation within the Sulawesi biogeographic region are that Sulawesi is subdivided into numerous subregions of endemism and that, by extrapolating the example of cryptic tarsier species to other taxa, biodiversity may be underestimated by an order of magnitude. The practical realties of conservation in Sulawesi are such that it is most reasonable to assume that anthropogenic extinctions are occurring, and that some species will go extinct before they have even been identified.

Geographical Variation in Duet Songs of Sulawesi Tarsiers: Evidence for New Cryptic Species in South and Southeast Sulawesi

Geographic populations of Sulawesi tarsiers differ conspicuously in the acoustic structure of the loud duet calls produced by mated pairs. There is evidence that the differences in call features relate to species differentiation. Duet calls can thus be used as a tool to identify cryptic species and for their monitoring in the field. We recorded duets from various geographically isolated populations of Tarsius tarsier in south and southeast Sulawesi to survey the species identity of the tarsiers in these regions. We compared their calls with the duet calls of the Manado tarsier (= Tarsius spectrum), Tarsius dianae, and the Togian Island tarsier. In addition, we recorded and analyzed the duet call of the tarsier from Peleng Island, Tarsius pelengensis. Qualitative characteristics of duet songs of both sexes, analysis of frequency and temporal parameters, and multivariate statistics show 4 distinct vocal forms that predict the existence of 4 new species. These are found on Selayar Island, on the south mainland (Bantimurung), on the southeast mainland (Puwato), and on the Islands of Kabaena and Buton. Our analysis of the call of the Peleng tarsier revealed striking similarities with the call of Tarsius dianae. Further morphological analyses are needed to support the proposed new species in south and southeast Sulawesi and to clarify the taxonomic affinity between the central Sulawesi tarsier species Tarsius pelengensis and T. dianae.

Intraspecific Variation in the Mating System of Spectral Tarsiers

Historically, a species’ social system was perceived to be a fixed attribute and deviations were usually treated as aberrant or maladaptive. Over the last few decades, socioecologists have started to recognize that variation in social systems is normal and adaptive. Here I explore how ecological variation affects the mating system of a nocturnal primate, the spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum. Several studies of the spectral tarsier have illustrated variation in this species’ mating system. Although most groups exhibit a monogamous mating system, a small proportion of the population consistently exhibits a polygynous mating system. I conducted this study at Tangkoko Nature Reserve in Sulawesi, Indonesia during 2007. I found that group size was highly variable, ranging from 2 individuals to as many as 8 individuals per sleeping site. Although most groups (21 of 26) were composed of a single adult male and a single adult female, ca. 19% of the groups contained 2 adult females. Three of the 5 groups with 2 adult females contained 2 young infants. As might be expected, polygynous groups were larger than were monogamous groups. The mean group size of monogamous groups was 2.9, whereas the mean group size of polygynous groups was 6.0. Polygynous groups were also more likely to use Ficus caulocarpa trees than were the monogamous groups. Polygynous groups consistently used more sleeping sites as well as larger diameter sleeping trees, than did monogamous groups. The large-diameter fig trees are ideal homes for the spectral tarsiers in that they offer multiple entrances and exits as well as protection from the elements. Polygynous and monogamous groups exhibited no differences in insect biomass available, home range size, or height of sleeping tree. These results support the hypothesis that ecological variation is an important determinant of mating system within spectral tarsiers.

The Genera and Species of Tarsiidae

We revise the taxonomy of the primate family Tarsiidae. We classify extant tarsiers in 3 genera—Tarsius, Cephalopachus, and Carlito—each of which originated in the Miocene, or earlier, and each of which is allopatrically distributed within a distinct biogeographic region: Sulawesi, Sundaland, and Greater Mindanao, respectively. Within the genus Tarsius, formerly regarded as a single species, Tarsius spectrum, we recognize 8 allopatric and parapatric species, 9 if the inclusion of pumilus is warranted, and note that more are likely to be described in the near future. We restrict Tarsius tarsier, the senior taxon of the genus, to the island of Selayar, off the tip of the southwestern peninsula of Sulawesi. In doing so, it is required that we resurrect Tarsius fuscus Fischer 1804, for the population of tarsiers from the southwestern peninsula near the city of Makassar. We note that neither Cephalopachus nor Carlito has been the subject of anywhere near as much field research as has Tarsius; thus we question if the currently accepted α taxonomy for these genera is based on knowledge or ignorance.

Kajian Penanda Genetik Tarsius bancanus dan Tarsius spectrum dengan Sekuen D-Loop Parsial DNA Mitokondria

The objective of this research was to study the specific genetic marker on D-loop region of Tarsius bancanus and Tarsius spectrum. The sequencing of PCR product using primer DLTARPROF on D-loop resulted in base sequence of 270 nts. Result of D-loop fragments sequencing was put on multiple alignment with other primates from Genbank with the aid of software Genetyc-Win Version 3.0 and Clustal W, and was analyzed using MEGA program version 3.1. The genetic distance was based on nucleotide D-loop, the smallest genetic distance was 0% and the biggest was 11.8% and the average was 2.3%. The phylogenetic tree using neighbor Joining Method based on some nucleotide sequence on D-loop region could not be used to differentiate between Tarsius bancanus and Tarsius spectrum.